A Field Guide To NC Wetlands

SPA # 9~4fi~ - 94i041fl
January 1996 Report 1Vo. ~!~ - 01
Department of Environment, Health and N ral .Resources
Division of Environmental Management

A FIELD GUIDE TO
NORTH CAROLINA
WETLANDS
EPA #9048-94/001
DEM Report No. 96-O1
Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources
Division of Environmental Management
Water Quality Section
P.O. Box 29535
Raleigh, North Carolina 27626-0535
Phone: [phone]
[phone]
500 copies of this public document were produced at a cost
of $12,470 or $24.94 per document.

Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................. vi
The Status of North Carolina Wetlands Today .................................. l
Characteristics of Wetlands
Defining .`Wefland" ..................................................................................3
Hydrology ................................................................................................. 4
Hydric Soils ...............................................................................................7
Wetland Plants ...........................................................................................1 l
Values of Wetlands
Values Based on Human Perspective ....................................................... 17
Hydrologic Values .................................................................................... 19
Water Quality Values ................................................................................20
Habitat Values ...........................................................................................23
Duect Use Values ..................................................................................... 28
Values of Wetland Types .......................................................................... 31
Major Types of North Carolina Wetlands
Classifying Wetlands ................................................................................ 3j
Explanation of Type Description .............................................................. 33
Key to Wetland Types ...............................................................................39
Wetlands Sustained by Rainfall ................................................................ 42
Wet Flats ..................................................................................... 44
Pocosins ..................................................................................... 50
Ephemeral Wetlands ................................................................... 53
Wetlands Sustained by Ground Water Discharge ..................................... 56
Seeps ........................................................................................... 57
Wetlands Sustained by Ground Water and Surface Water ....................... 60
Mountain Bogs ........................................................................... 61
Bog Forests ................................................................................. 64
Headwater Forests ...................................................................... 67
Wetlands on Rivers and Lakes .................................................................. 70
Bottomland Hardwood Forests ................................................... 73
Swamp Forests ........................................................................... 77
Freshwater Marshes .................................................................... 81
Wetlands on the Ocean ............................................................................. 85
Estuarine Fringe Forests ............................................................. 87
Brackish Marshes ....................................................................... 89
Salt Shrub Wetlands ................................................................... 92
Salt Marshes ............................................................................... 94
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The Future of North Carolina Wetlands
Natural Processes of Change ...................................................... 97
Duect Modification of Wetlands ............................................... 98
Modifying Watersheds of Wetlands ...........................................101
Envisioning a Future With Wetlands ..........................................104
Appendix 1: Comparison of Major Types to Natural Heritage
Program Types .................................................................................... 107
Appendix 2: Contacts for Wetland Information ..................................110
Appendix 3: Common and Scientific Names of Plants ........................113
Glossary of Wetland Terms ................................................................... 116
Selected Bibliography ............................................................................. 121
Index .........................................................................................................125
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Sidebars
Using This Field Guide ........................................................................................... vi
No Single Definition for Wetland ........................................................................... 4
Examining Hydrology ............................................................................................. 7
Determining Soil Texture ........................................................................................ l l
Examining Wetland Plants ...................................................................................... 15
Illustrations
Figure 1. Hydrology of a generalized wefland ........................................................ 4
Figure 2. Seasonal fluctuations in wetland hydrology ............................................ 6
Figure 3. Functions occurring in wetlands .............................................................. 17
Figure 4. Nitrogen removal from wetlands ............................................................. 21
Figure 5. Freshwater wetlands by source of water .................................................. 34
Figure 6. Physiographic provinces of North Carolina .............................................35
Figure 7. Key to major wetland types ..................................................................... 39
Figure 8. Ground water discharge on hillside ......................................................... 56
Figure 9. Floodplain formations and wetlands ........................................................70
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Tables
Table 1. Levels of Saturation or Inundation ............................................................6
Table 2. Forms of Wetland Plants ........................................................................... 12
Table 3. Indicator Status of Common Plants .......................................................... .14
Table 4. Water Storage by Wetlands ...................................................................... 19
Table 5. Shoreline Stabilization by Wetlands ........................................................ 20
Table 6. Pollutant Removal by Wetlands ............................................................... 22
', Table 7. Wildlife Habitat in Wetlands .................................................................... 24
Table 8. Aquatic Habitat in Wetlands ..................................................................... 26
Table 9. Special Ecological Attributes of Wetlands ............................................... 27
Table 10. Recreation and Education in Wetlands ................................................... 29
Table 11. Timber Production in Wetlands .............................................................. 30
Table 12. Hunting Leases in Wetlands ................................................................... 31
Table 13. Wetland Types and Typical Values ........................................................ 32
Table 14. Modifications to Wetlands ...............................:.................................... 99
Table 15. Modifying the Watersheds of Wetlands ................................................ 102

PREFACE
Wetlands have been a source of great controversy in the past few years as regulators
have sought to protect wetlands and to improve regulatory programs. Increasingly,
wetlands are a focus of interest for ecologists, hydrologists, soil scientists, and
resource managers because they represent a dynamic interface of land and water
systems. However, many people have little understanding of the characteristics
which make an area a wetland. Many people regard wetlands as waste places which
could be best used by filling or draining. Other people fail to recognize the wide
diversity of wetlands, particularly freshwater wetlands, that occurs in North Caro-
lina.
This Field Guide to North Carolina Wetlands serves as a general guide to wetland
characteristics and types in North Carolina. As an introduction to the ecology of
wetlands, it concentrates on what can be observed in the field. This Field Guide is
not intended as a guide for wetland delineation or plant identification, as there are
other manuals which address these needs. Similarly, this guide does not attempt to
explain how the 404/401 regulatory program or other wetland programs operate.
The changing nature of regulatory programs makes it essential for anyone who
intends to alter an area which may be a wetland to contact the appropriate agencies,
some of which are listed in Appendix 2. However, this guide may serve to alert
landowners to a wetland's presence and values. It will also be useful to regulatory
staff needing a basic background in wetland ecology.
This Field Guide was developed under a State Wetland Protection Development
Grant from the United States Environmental Protection Agency under EPA Grant
No. CD004936-91 to the North Carolina Department of Environment, Health and
Natural Resources. It has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative
review and has been approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of
trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommen-
dation for use. This Field Guide draws heavily on information developed by the
North Carolina Natural Heritage Program (NHP) and expertise provided by the NHP
staff. However, any omissions in the guide are solely the responsibility of the North
Carolina Division of Environmental Management.
USING THIS GUIDE
1. Use wetland characteristics to recognize the presence of a wetland.
2. Use the key to initially identify the type of wetland.
3. Check the wetland description to confirm or refute the type.
4. Observe evidence of values provided by the wetland.
5. Consider what modifications have been made to the weQand.
vii

NORTH CAROLINA
WETLANDS TODAY
To a casual observer, North Carolina appears to have an abundance of wetlands.
Driving to North Carolina's beaches can reveal thousands of acres of wet pine
forests, swamps and salt marshes. However, a large portion of the freshwater
wetlands of the coastal plain have been converted to agriculture, forestry or urban
land use. For example, 83 percent of Carteret County is believed to have been
wetlands prior to European settlement (DEM 1991). By the 1950s, about 73
percent of the county was still covered by largely natural wetlands (wetlands with
little distrubance and intact systems of hydrology, hydric soils and wetland
plants). However, by the mid-1980s, only 52 percent of the county was covered
by largely natural wetlands. Only 2 percent of the wetlands which were modified
were salt or brackish marshes; most were freshwater wetland forests.
One estimate, based on the presence of soils which develop in wet conditions, is
that North Cazolina had nearly 7.5 million acres of wetlands prior to European
settlement (DEM 1994). Nearly 95 percent of these wetlands were located in the
coastal plain. According to estimates by the N.C. Division of Environmental
Management, about 34 percent of North Carolina's original wetland acreage has
been impacted. Of this acreage, about 2.5 percent has been converted to urban
land use, about 18 percent has been converted to agriculture and about 13 percent
has been converted to forestry. Most of the land converted has been marginally
wet areas rather than extremely wet areas.
Wetlands are much less common and extensive in other areas of the state, with
only four percent of the state's wetlands in the piedmont and one percent in the
mountains (DEM 1994). Few data are available for the rate of modification in the
piedmont, but the rate is probably high. Piedmont wetlands are often located in the
fertile soils along larger streams and rivers, and are therefore vulnerable to being
converted to agricultural use. Many piedmont wetlands have become flooded by
the construction of water supply and recreational reservoirs. One study of moun-
tain wetlands estimated that 95 percent of the wetlands in Buncombe County have
been modified (Moorhead 1993). Mountain wetlands frequently occur along river
valleys and are in the path of urban development, road and railroad corridors and
conversion to agricultural use such as pasture and cropland.
Although wetlands continue to be modified at a rapid pace, the values of wetlands
are becoming more widely recognized. Adoption of the Coastal Area Management
Act in 1976 greatly reduced the modification of estuarine wetlands. In recent
years, Sections 404 and 401 of the Clean Water Act have worked together to

WETLANDS TODAY
restrict modification of many freshwater wetlands. Estuarine wetlands are the focus
of exhibits at the three North Carolina Aquariums (Pine Knoll Shores, Fort Fisher,
and Roanoke Island), and freshwater wetlands will be the focus of new exhibits at
the state's Museum of Natural Sciences (Raleigh) and Zoological Park (Asheboro).
State, federal and private agencies have produced numerous posters, brochures and
educational guides focused on wetlands. Some of these may be reviewed through
the state Office of Environmental Education.
Until this Field Guide, however, there has been no guide for general use by those
interested in observing wetlands found in North Carolina. By using this guide in
conjunction with plant and animal guides, observers will be able to analyze a
particular wetland to identify the wetland type and to obtain an understanding of its
ecology and values. Each chapter presents a step in analyzing a wetland in the field.
"Chapter One: Characteristics of Wetlands" presents an overview of the wetland
definition currently used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers with the characteris-
tics to look for in the field. It discusses the scientific principles associated with the
three criteria-wetland hydrology, hydric soils and wetland plants-used in
wetland identification.
"Chapter Two: Values Provided by Wetlands" explains the distinctions between
functions and values, ability and opportunity. It then discusses the types of values
that wetlands can provide and suggests which wetland types might be expected to
provide each value. "Chapter Three: Major Types of North Carolina Wetlands"
presents 14 wetland types which are widely distributed throughout the state with
diagnostic information for each type. Pages 39-42 present a simplified key that can
be used to make an initial identification of a general wetland type. "Chapter Four:
The Future of North Carolina Wetlands" discusses modification of wetlands as well
as trends in protecting wetlands and [heir values.
"Appendix 1" compares the types included in this guide to those used by the North
Carolina Natural Heritage Program, Division of Parks and Recreation (NHP). The
NHP has conducted extensive surveys of wetland types in developing a classifica-
tion system for wetlands. The NHP classification has greater detail and precision
than the general classification used in this Field Guide. "Appendix 2" gives sources
of wetland information, from identification manuals for plants and animals to a
telephone "hotline." "Appendix 3" lists the common and scientific names of all
plants and animals mentioned in this guide. A "Glossary of Wetland Terms"
follows the appendices. The "Selected Bibliography" lists texts and articles that
were particularly useful in preparing this guide and that may be of interest to the
user.
To make the best use of this Field Guide, begin by visiting a local wetland. If you
are unaware of the location of wetlands or if you cannot obtain permission to visit a
local wetland, visit the sites listed in this guide. Then use this guide to duect your
observation of wetland characteristics, type, values and modifications.
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CHARACTERISTICS
OF WETLANDS
Some wetlands are easily recognized as wetlands while others may only be rewg-
nized by specialists. Distinguishing between wetlands and non-wetlands can be
difficult because of the diversity of wetlands and the subtlety of wetland chazacteris-
tics. This chapter discusses those characteristics that a majority of wetlands shaze-
wetland hydrology, hydric soils and wetland plants.
DEFINING "WETLAND"
Wetlands are areas where aquatic and terrestrial communities interface, or they aze
areas where soils are frequently saturated, or they are pools that fill and evaporate
over the course of a year. By their nature, wetlands are characterized by change and
complexity. For many of We scientists, regulators, and landowners confronted with
wetlands, they are also characterized by controversy.
A major source of controversy has been the definition of a wetland. There are
currently many definitions in use which have arisen from the need to study or
manage these azeas. Hydrogeologists investigate the relationship of the water table
relative to the ground surface. Soil scientists study hydric soils and evaluate their
suitability for uses such as farming or forestry. Botanists are interested in how plants
adapt to wet conditions. Resource managers manipulate wetlands to provide habitat
for waterfowl and wildlife as well as rare species. Regulators wish to identify and
protect sites which provide a balance of values to society. With these differing
perspectives, it is not surprising that disagreements abound about the definition of
"wetland."
Some of the disagreement arises out of the complexity of wetland systems. Wetland
characteristics can change dramatically from year to year and even from season to
season. Wetlands have some characteristics of aquatic communities and some
characteristics of terrestrial communities, but they ar;, neither -they are unique.
For a field guide, the definition of what constitutes a wetland should be (1) broad
enough to encompass a wide variety of wetland types, and (2) based on chazacteris-
tics which can be observed in the field. The definition currently used by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers meets these criteria. According to this definition, wetlands
are "those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a
frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do
support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil
conditions" (Corps of Engineers 1987). In practice, this definition examines wetland

CHARACTERISTICS OF WETLANDS
chazacteristics in terms of wetland hydrology, hydric soils and wetland plants.
While some disturbed sites may not exhibit all of these chazacteristics, an experi-
enced observer can generally make some guesses about what the undisturbed
wetland would be like.
'There is no single, correct, indisputable, ecologically sound definition for
wetlands, primarily because of the diversity of wetlands and because the
demarcation between dry and wet environmc~ts lies along a continuum.
Cowardin et al. 1979
WETLAND HYDROLOGY
Hydrology is the single most important chazacteristic in determining the presence
of a wetland and its characteristics. Wetlands are more sensitive to changes which
affect their hydrology than to changes in either soil or vegetation. If plants are
removed from an azea but the hydrology remains, wetland plants will invade.
Hydric soils will eventually develop as organic matter accumulates and chemical
elements change form under saturated conditions. If the hydrology is altered,
however, then hydric soils and wetland plants will be lost over time.
Hydrology refers to the inflow and outflow of water as well as the degree of soil
saturation or inundation. Water flows into wetlands in a variety of forms, as
illustrated in Figure 1. Precipitation enters wetlands duectly as rain, sleet, fog and
snow, with rainfall providing the greatest volume in North Carolina. While rainfall
is usually fairly well distributed throughout the year, summer rainfall is greatest
with July as the wettest month.
Runoff
Tides
Streamflow
Overbank
flooding
Groundwater ,~.;;~„
discharge ~;~'."'~,,
Rainfall
~y
Figure 1. Hydrology of a generalized wetland
Evapotranspiration
4Q
~:' Runoff
Streamflow
s Groundwater
recharge `~

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WETLAND HYDROLOGY
Autumn is the driest season with November as the driest month. Rainfall varies
across the state. East of the mountains the average annual precipitation is 40-55
inches (NOAA 1985). Precipitation is highly variable in the mountains due to
variations in topography. In the southwest, moist southerly winds are forced over the
mountains and the average annual precipitation is greater than 80 inches. Only 50
miles away in a sheltered valley of the French Broad River, the average annual
precipitation is only 37 inches.
In the majority of wetlands, ground water, surface water or a combination of the two
is the primary source of water. Ground water is the water which collects between
soil particles, in soil layers above impervious layers and in layers of rock called
aquifers. Ground water is discharged where the water table intercepts the surface of
the ground, generally on slopes on hillsides. In some wetlands, surface water or
shallow ground water may seep into deeper ground water aquifers. In many other
wetlands, surface water and shallow ground water are isolated from the underlying
water table by impervious layers of soil or rock. Shallow lenses of ground water
isolated from underlying ground water reservoirs are referred to as perched water
tables.
Surface water enters wetlands as runoff, streamflow (channelized flow), and
overbank flooding. Runoff consists of sheets of water that is not contained in
channels. Streamflow occurs in channels. Overbank flooding occurs when streams
fill their channels and spill over onto the relatively flat area parallel to the stream,
which is often referred to as the floodplain. The amount of surface water flowing
into a wetland depends on watershed characteristics such as the amount of impervi-
ous cover, the soil types, the slope, and the height of the stream bank. The landscape
position of the wetland also determines the amount of surface water flow. Estuarine
wetlands also receive surface water in the form of tides, either as direct overland
flow or through inland flow in tidal creeks, streams and rivers and in artificial canals
and mosquito ditches.
Water leaves wetlands in the form of evapotranspiration, runoff and streamflow.
Evapotranspiration is the combination of evaporation of water (from surfaces of
soil, water and plants) and transpiration of water vapor (from plant leaves and
stems). About two-thirds of all rain falling returns to the atmosphere, most of it
through evapotranspiration. Some wetlands may also lose water when water in
surface layers of soil drains into deeper layers or aquifers.
Water accumulates whenever inflow exceeds outflow. Water accumulates first in
pore spaces between soil particles. When virtually all pore spaces are filled and the
water can flow through the soil by the pull of gravity, the soil is said to be saturated.
If the water pools above the surface of the ground, the area is said to be inundated.
If streams overflow their banks and submerge the surrounding area, the area is said
to be f boded. In many wetlands, the accumulation of water is increased due to
impervious layers of soil, such as clay or rock. Table 1 shows levels of saturation or
inundation used in this guide to describe wetland types. There are no distinct breaks
between the eight levels, which may lead to differences in opinion as to how wet an
area is.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WETLANDS
Table 1. Levels of Saturation or Inundation
Irregularly saturated -generally dry with occasional periods of soil saturation
Seasonally saturated -soil saturated from December to March, dry from mid-
summer through mid-fall
Semi-permanently to permanently saturated -soil saturated most of the time
Irregularly inundated or flooded -standing surface water for brief periods
several times a year
Seasonally inundated or flooded -standing surface water from December to
March, absent from mid-summer through mid-fall
Irregularly inundated by tides - inundated by (brackish or saltwater) wind
tides on an infrequent basis
Regularly flooded by tides -inundated by (brackish or saltwater) lunar tides
twice daily
Semi-permanently to permanently inundated or flooded -inundated most of
the time but may be exposed during droughts
adapted from Tiner 1988
Most nontidal wetlands show seasonal fluctuations of saturation or inundation, as
illustrated in Figure 2. From winter tomid-spring or early summer, accumulated
'!~
wEvapotranspiration
Rainfall P y
_..~ _.n.
Runoff
Streamflow
a'~h= Runoff
ot.oa.aturationi Streamflow
January -February
Evapotranspiration
Rainfall
i
Runoff
Streamflow _ - y ___
.~• . •.+.'t• • Runoff
b ~44po o~ao 0000000 op X00 0 0od~
~ Level of soil caturatlon ~
September -October
Figure 2. Seasonal fluctuations in wetlands hydrology

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WETLAND HYDROLOGY
water may be at or above the surface of the ground. From summer to mid-September
or October, the water level drops as days lengthen, air temperature rises and evapo-
transpiration increases. From mid-fall to mid-winter, water accumulates as tempera-
tures decrease, deciduous trees and shrubs lose their leaves and herbs die back.
However, there are exceptions. Wetlands with dense stands of pines may have
relatively high evapotranspiration rates during warm periods in winter. Wetlands
created by ground water discharge are less susceptible to seasonal changes in their
saturation or inundation since the ground water flow is more constant.
Despite its importance as a wetland characteristic, wetland hydrology can be difficult
to recognize in the field. The photographic key which follows, Indicators of Wetland
Hydrology, shows indicators which may be present at some sites during some
periods. However, there are many times when the observer must rely on soil and
plant characteristics to infer the presence of wetland hydrology.
EXAMINING HYllROLOGY
1. Consider the season of the year and the likely level of saturation or
inundation.
2. Consider any preceding events -drought, heavy rains, floods, heavy
snows followed by, thaws.
lixamine the local terrain for possible sources of water.
Look for indicators of wetland hydrology.
INDICATORS OF WETLAND HYDROLOGY (from less to more wets
soft or wet ground
water-stained or silt-covered leaves
many wind-thrown trees
water channel marks and scotu
recent deposits of sand or silt
water-carried debris or "drift lines" around trees
water-carried debris in branches
water-stained or silt-covered trunks of trees and shrubs
water marks on structures
HYDRIC SOILS
Wetland hydrology results in periods of soil saturation or inundation. Predictable
changes in soils caused by saturation can be used to infer long-term patterns of
hydrology.
The primary effect of extended saturation or inundation on soil is the development
of anaerobic, orlow-oxygen, conditions. The Natural Resources Conservation
Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) defines hydric soil as "soil that is
saturated, flooded, or ponded long enough during the growing season to develop

anaerobic conditions in the upper part" (SCS 1985, 1). Inundation itself does not
cause anaerobic conditions since floodwaters often contain ample levels of
dissolved oxygen. Anaerobic conditions occur as dissolved oxygen in soil water
is used up by soil organisms. When the temperature is high enough, soil organ-
isms use dissolved oxygen to break down organic material in soil, depleting the
oxygen supply. If saturation or inundation is extended, the oxygen may not be
replenished by diffusion because oxygen diffuses more slowly through water than
through air. In this situation, anaerobic conditions are created.
Anaerobic conditions interfere with the biological breakdown of organic material.
Soils which are primarily composed of organic matter in their upper 16 inches
(40 centimeters) are generally classified as organic soils. Organic soils are
generally assumed to have developed under prolonged saturation or inundations.
Soils which are continuously saturated or inundated develop thick layers of muck
or peat. In some wetlands, peat accumulates to depths of several feet and may
form domes above We surrounding landscape. Highly porous peat absorbs water
well but transmits it poorly. As peat builds up over the years, the lower layers
form a largely impermeable base similar to clay or rock.
Silt-covered leaves
Wind-thrown trees

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Water channel marks and scour
Soils which contain relatively little organic material, referred to as mineral soils,
also respond [o anaerobic conditions by undergoing changes. Soil scientists refer
to these changes as redoximorphic features. In mineral soils that are seasonally
saturated, anaerobic conditions can cause mottling or gleying. This is caused when
microorganisms convert ferric iron (Fe's to ferrous iron (Fe+~, the reduced form.
Ferrous iron is easily leached from soil, causing the color of the soil to change
from bright-colored to neutral, greenish or bluish gray. Where the soil is alter-
nately saturated and aerated, it becomes marked with spots or blotches of contrast-
ing color called mottling. Where the soil is almost continuously saturated, the gray
or black color is almost continuous and is referred to as gleyed. Because soil color
is highly variable, soil scientists use Munsell color charts to allow them to identify
the precise hue and chroma of soil and the presence of mottling and gleying
(Munsell 1992).
WETLAND HYDROLOGY
Water-carried debris or 'drift lines' around trees

CHARACTERISTICS OF WETLANDS
Mottled soil
Gleyed soil
The accurate interpretation of soil color is difficult and may require extensive
knowledge of and experience in soil science. Mottling and gleying do not readily
occur in sandy soils or in recent deposits from streams, so they cannot be used to I
infer hydrology in these situations. Anaerobic conditions and gleying may occur
even in non-saturated conditions in clay soils due to the extremely slow diffusion
of oxygen. Mottling and gleying can indicate that the soils were anaerobic in the
past, but they may persist even if the soil becomes aerated as a result of drainage. ~
Some redoximorphic features are more easily interpreted. Under prolonged
anaerobic conditions, microorganisms convert sulfur and organic material to
hydrogen sulfide ~i S) and methane (CH ). The rotten egg smell encountered in
swamps is the release of pockets of hydrogen sulfide. Methane may accumulate
and bubble out when soil is disturbed. Manganese and iron in soils are sometimes
converted [o persistent hard black or dark brown balls called concretions or
nodules.

Because of the difficulty of interpreting redoximorphic features, non-experts should
be cautious about drawing conclusions about soil wetness. For information about
soils in the general area, consult the Natural Resources Conservation Service soil
survey and the list of hydric soils for the county. The Natural Resources Conserva-
tion Service may be able to provide a list regional indicators of soil saturation. For
information about a specific site, non-experts should consult someone experienced
with wetland soils.
DETERMINING SOIL TEXTURE
Soil texture may be difficult to identify, but try these techniques for a
general idea.
Rub wet soil between your thumb and fingers.
Organic soils
peat -contains fragments of the original plant materials.
muck -looks homogeneous and feels slippery. Plant materials are
broken down into fine particles.
Mineral soils
sand -feels gritty.
silt -feels flour- or talcum-like when dry, not sticky when wet.
clay -feels sticky and forms a continuous ribbon when pressed out
between thumb and fmgers. Clay may form clods when
squeezed into a ball.
Brady 1974
WETLAND PLANTS
Saturation and inundation generally interfere with plant growth and reproduction,
but some plants have developed adaptations which allow them to survive and
flourish in wetlands. The presence of plants exhibiting these adaptations gives
evidence of long-term wetland hydrology. The photographic key which follows this
section shows some of the more apparent plant adaptations.
Wetland plants must adapt to the stress of anaerobic conditions by pumping oxygen
into their roots. Although some plants species are capable of temporary anaerobic
respiration, roots of most wetland species need oxygen for respiration and growth
during the growing season. If oxygen is not present in the soil, plants will die unless
they pump oxygen into their roots. Gleyed soils are sometimes threaded with rust-
colored root channels (oxidized rhizospheres), showing where oxygen has leaked
from living roots and oxidized iron in the soil.
11

CHARACTERISTICS OF WETLANDS
Table 2. Forms of Wetland Plants
Herbs -non-woody plants other than vines
aquatic bed plants -free-floating plants, floating-leafed rooted vascular
plants and submerged plants growing beneath the water's surface.
emergent plants -rooted plants whose stems and leaves normally
extend above the water's surface or which grow erect from periodically
inundated or saturated soils
Vines -non-woody or woody plants whose young stems are long, slender
and flexible, trailing on the ground, climbing or [wining
Shrubs -woody plants, including young trees, whose height is less
than 20 feet
Trees -woody plants whose height is greater than 20 feet
adapted from Tiner 1988
Plants adapt to frequent saturation by developing mechanisms that allow roots to
survive when the soil is saturated and anaerobic. Willow trees and some herbs and
tree seedlings have the ability to grow roots on stems where roots are not normally
found. These adventitious roots survive and take in oxygen when soil saturation
kills deeper roots. Individual trees often respond by developing shallow or exposed
roots. To prevent being toppled by wind, well-adapted tree species develop
extensive intertwined root networks for stabilization. They also adapt by develop-
ing enlarged bases with extensions called buttresses. Some botanists believe that
cypress knees serve to stabilize cypress trees in saturated soil.
Some plant species develop special structures to take in or circulate oxygen.
Cattails, sedges, grasses, water lilies and many rushes have hollow air-filled
tissues called aerenehyma in stems and roots. Some arrowhead (Sagittaria spp.)
species develop broad, floating leaves when submerged and narrow, upright leaves
when exposed, referred to as polymorphic ("many forms") leaves. Water lilies and
some aquatic bed plants have floating leaves or stems.
Other plants have developed internal structures which are not apparent in the field.
The water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) has developed special respiratory organs called
pneumatophores that extend above the soil to allow oxygen to diffuse to roots. A
few species develop enlarged pores in their stems, called hypertrophied lentieels,
to promote the transfer of oxygen into the plant.
Just as roots require oxygen to function, most seeds require oxygen to germinate.
While cypress trees are well-adapted to inundated conditions, their seeds germi-
nate only when water levels are low enough to expose the soil. Some plants have
developed seeds which can float to more favorable sites for germination.
Saturation of soils may expose plants to toxic concentrations of certain chemical
12

CHARACTERISTICS OF WETLANDS
Table 3. Indicator Status of Common Plants
OBLIGATE WETLAND (OBL) -plants which almost always occur in
wetlands (estimated probability >99%)
Arrowhead, Sagittaria sp.
Cattail, Typha sp.
Smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora
Bald cypress, Taxodium distichum
Black willow, Salix nigra
FACULTATIVE WETLAND (FACW) -plants which usually occur in
wetlands (estimated probability 67-99%)
Jewelweed/touch-me-not, Impatiens capensis
Tag alder, Alnus serrulata
American elm, Ulmus americana
American sycamore, Platanus occidentalis
River birch, Betula nigra
FACULTATIVE (FAC) -plants equally likely to occur in wetlands or
non-wetlands (estimated probability 34-66%)
Poison ivy, Toxicodendron radicans
American holly, Ilex opaca
Loblolly pine, Pinus taeda
Red maple, Acer rubrum
Sweet gum, Liquidambar styraciflua
FACULTATIVE UPLAND (FACU) -plants which usually occur in non-
wetlands but are occasionally found in wetlands (estimated probability 1-33%)
Common dandelion, Taraxacum officinale
Eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis
Flowering dogwood, Corpus florida
Longleaf pine, Pinus palustris
White oak, Quercus alba
OBLIGATE UPLAND (UPL) -plants which almost always occur
in non-wetlands in this region, but which occur in wetlands in another
region (estimated probability >99%)
Chicory, Chicorium intybus
Galax, Galax aphylla
Queen Anne's lace/wild carrot, Daucus carota
Black jack oak, Quercus marilandica
Scrub pine, Pinus virginiana
National List of Plant Species that Occur in Wetlands, FWS 1988
14

WETLAND PLANTS
elements. Anaerobic conditions cause chemical elements such as manganese, iron
and sulfur to be converted to their reduced forms and dissolved in water. Small
amounts of these elements are needed by plants, but when reduced and dissolved,
they become concentrated in soil water. Under these conditions, plants take up too
much of these elements and become damaged. Salt is also toxic to plant tissues.
Wetlands subjected to brackish or salt tides only contain plants which have devel-
oped adaptations to reduce or reverse salt intake. For example, salt marsh grasses
excrete crystalline salt particles through specialized salt glands in their leaves.
In general, wetlands have greater diversity and productivity when water flows
through them rather than stagnates. Nutrients and oxygen are regularly brought into
these systems and toxic chemicals are removed. Prolonged flooding reduces the
number of species present because this promotes the formation of anaerobic
conditions.
Many plant species without obvious adaptations are more abundant in wetlands than
elsewhere. Dominance by these species at a site can also suggest wetland hydrology.
The National List of Plant Species that Occur in Wetlands (Reed 1988) classifies
plant species by their frequency of occurrence in wetlands. Lists are available for
specific regions of the United States, including the southeastern region. Table 3
shows the five categories of wetland plants with their definitions and some common
North Carolina examples. Plants on the edge of a category may be further identified
using plus (for plants tending toward wetlands) or minus (for plants tending toward
uplands). Areas in which 50 percent or more of dominant plant species fall in the
facultative, facultative wetland or obligate categories suggest the presence of
wetland hydrology (according to the Corps of Engineers 1987 Delineation Manual).
1
Water-stained trunks of trees, Pitt County

WETLAND PLANTS
EXAMINING WETLAND PLANTS
1. Note any obvious plant adaptations to wetland conditions.
2. Identify the species of dominant plants and thew indicator status.
3. Calculate the percentage of obligate, facultative wetland and facultative
plants.
Over 50 percent (combined) of obligate, facultative wetland and
facultative plants suggests the presence of wetland hydrology.
ADAPTATIONS OF WETLAND PLANTS
Shallow, exposed roots on red maple. Also found on laurel oak and others.
Buttressed tree trunks on swamp tupelo. Also found on bald cypress, red
maple, green ash and water tupelo.
Knees on bald cypress.
Adventitious roots on willows. Also found on box elder, sycamore, pin oak,
green ash, water tupelo and various herbs.
Polymorphic leaves on arrowhead. Also found on water parsnip.
Floating leaves and stems on spatterdock. Also found on white water lIly,
pondweed and water shield.
Air-filled stems in cattails. Also found in cordgrass and many rushes.

Buttressed tree trunks and knees of bald cypress

CHARACTERISTICS OF WETLANDS
Q~
Floating leaves and stems on spatterdock, Trent River, Craven County
Cattails contain air-filled stems

i
•
i
•
i
r
r
VALUES PROVIDED
BY WETLANDS
Wetlands were considered wastelands in the past, but many people now recognize
their values. As wetland scientists understand more about the functioning of
wetlands and their importance to human society, interest in protecting wetlands has
increased. This chapter examines the values provided by wetlands in general and by
specific types of wetlands.
VALUES BASED ON HUMAN PERSPECTIVE
The terms functions and values are often used interchangeably, but they have
different meanings. Functions are "ecological, hydrological or other phenomena
that contribute to the self-maintenance of the wetland ecosystem" (Brinson in press).
Functions are processes taking place within the wetland ecosystem irrespective of
their effect on human society. Net primary productivity-production of organic
material above what plants need to survive and grow-is an example of a wetland
function. Figure 3 illustrates some of the functions occurring in wetlands.
Values, on the other hand, denote "something worthy, desirable, or useful to
humans" (Hirsch and Gosselink 1993, 508). Values are derived from ecosystem
functions that are perceived to have positive impact on people. They are centered on
the needs and perspective of human society. Frequently, values are those functions
that have received sufficient recognition to be protected by law. For example, plant
production in salt marshes is critical for fish and shellfish harvests so salt marshes
are given stringent protection in law. Because the perceptions of human society
changes over time, values may also change.
PLANTS
slow water
INFLOWING WATER take up nutrients
carries sediments Shade Streams
dissolves nutrients`' build organic matter
shapestopogrephy
`„t , • • SOIL
s ~ ~ ~ • ,, buries sediments
~ ~ ' ' 'binds phosphorus
transforms nitrogen
Figure 3. Functions occtring in wetlands
17
vrc -94:3
OUTFLOWING WATER
~ carries nutrients
distributes detritus

VALUES OF WETLANDS
The value of a wetland depends on its ability and opportunity to provide value.
Ability is based on characteristics of the wetland itself. Ability relates to whether a
wetland has the necessary plant structure, hydrologic regime and topographic
position to provide a particular value. For example, the ability of a wetland to
remove pollutants depends on (1) retention of sediments by wide, dense bands of
persistent plants, and (2) periodic flooding remaining long enough to create
anaerobic conditions that alternates with drier conditions. Opportunity is based on
characteristics of the surrounding area and the watershed. Opportunity determines
how much of its potential a wetland will fulfill. For example, the opportunity of a
wetland to remove pollutants depends on the actual amount and type of pollutants it
is receiving from the watershed.
Ability and opportunity work together to provide value. A broad bottomland
hardwood forest (BLH) with dense shrubs and vines on a low gradient stream
which periodically floods the wetland for several weeks a year has the ability to
remove pollutants such as phosphorus and nitrogen. Any BLH with similar charac-
teristics will have the ability to remove pollutants; however its opportunity to
remove pollutants will differ due to its position in the watershed If the BLH is on a
major river in a forested watershed it will only receive a limited number of pollut-
ants. This is because forested watersheds contribute less runoff and pollutants than
watersheds which are predominantly agricultural or urban. Wetlands on major
rivers receive relatively more of their water from overbank flooding than wetlands
on smaller streams that receive relatively more of their water from runoff. On the
other hand, if the BLH is on a smaller stream in an urban watershed, it receives
more pollutants and, consequently, can provide more value for pollutant removal.
The values provided by wetlands can be classified as hydrologic values, water
quality values, habitat values and duect use values. This discussion of values is
based on an extensive literature search conducted by the North Carolina Division of
Environmental Management, Department of Environment, Health and Natural
Resources (DEM 1993).
18

s

HYDROLOGIC VALUES
HYDROLOGIC VALUES
Hydrologic values derive from wetland functions which slow and retain surface
water. Wetlands provide value to people by providing water storage and shoreline
stabilization.
Water storage refers to the value wetlands have in temporarily storing heavy rain,
surface runoff and floodwaters. This reduces downstream flood damage and the
', need for structural protection such as artificial dikes and levees.
The ability of a wetland to store floodwaters depends on its position within the
watershed, size, depth, frictional resistance, and shoreline shape. The opportunity of
a wetland to store water depends primarily on the topography of the watershed.
Table 4. Water Storage by Wetlands
Value depends un: ~ with more value if:
wetland position • adjacent
relative to stream or
lake ~:XA1l4PLFJi~:XPLANAT10i~{
Salt shrub wetlands and salt marshes
stabilize many shorelines along the coast.
pan cover In we an • a east ee Freshwater marshes can provide good
Wlde shoreline stabilization along artificial
• IOW grOWing, impoundments. Low-growing wilbws (Salix
bendable trees sp.) and alder (Alnus sp.) are examples of
with deeply trees which are excellent for stabilization.
penetrating roots Bulrushes (Scirpus sp.) grow in dense beds
and growth from and can also be effective.
suckers OR
• dense stands of
emergents and
rooted aquatics
which persist over
winter
S Ore Ine SOI S • more er a In general, Piedmont soils are more erodable
• evidence of scour than the sandy soils of the Coastal Plain and
Or flow benefit more from the presence of wetlands.
fopogr-~2pfly In~-~--~ tile------~ • Sfeep gfadlen[~---~~ Bog forests siaiiilize irie shorelines of smaii
watershed • evidence of scour streams draining steep Mountain watersheds.
or flow
__

anduse Iri [fie ~"""-~ _ _
-
• PredOfTlln2~~ ~ ~
--~~_.--°--------°-----~.~_-_~----------9- v _-°°----
Bottomland hardwood forests in hi hl
Watershed urban urbanized watersheds are more valuable for
stabilizing shorelines because the shorelines
are more stressed b sudden h' h flows.
Shoreline stabilization refers to the stabilization of soil and vegetation along
streams, rivers, lakes and sounds. It is desirable because it reduces the amount of
sediments being carried into streams and lakes. Sediments carry nutrients into
streams and lakes and cover gravel stream bottoms needed by many aquatic animals.
Streambank stabilization also prevents the loss of adjacent land and plant cover.
Overhanging trees and shrubs keep water temperature cooler, resulting in higher
levels of dissolved oxygen. They also supply organic matter such as leaves and logs
which are essential for stream-based aquatic life.

VALUES OF WETLANDS
The ability of a wetland to stabilize a shoreline depends on its position relative to
the stream, its topography and the land use in the watershed.
Table S. Shoreline Stabilization by Wetlands
Value depends on: ; w+th more value if= € EXAMPLb1EXPLA~IATION
Wetland position • adjacent ' Estuarine cringe forests aril salt marshes on
relative to stream or the edge of estuaries can store floodwaters
lake from storm surges, reducing inland flooding.
wefian~slze •~af9@r Salt and brackish marshes cover man acres
and can store substantial amounts of water.
ep ~ Of-ClepfeSSlOfI _._.~ ___ _ _
~@p@r ~~~ ~.r. ~ Deeper backswamps can store more water
than shalbw bottomland hardwood forests of
the same size.
~fr'~cliorial"resistari'c'e'i'n""" ~~ wtcler'bariil~~of~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~aoii'o"miard'~nardwood~t«vsfs~aien~nave"~~~~~~~~~
the wetland plants thick shrub and vine layers, which slow
• logs, boulders, floodwaters. They may also have many dead
and hummocks trees, stumps and holes left by trees which
• most plants upright ~~ been bbwn down. These create small
and woody, variations in topography that can store
standing above substantial amounts of water.
floodwaters OR
• dense stands of
rooted aquatics and
emergents which
persist over winter
..
m
...............~--...........---.......----~----------__..~..--------------~
........ m......_.__.~.~.~
sfream~ank or sInUOUS and
• Coastal swamp toresis with sinuous streams
shoreline shape Irregular sbw floodwaters and increase overbank
floodin .
._.~..~---~---°-°--------°--_-°_~.~-------------°---°---~.~.
.~__ ._._ _ ___~.. ~
Wafers l~e(j~opogra~}ly _
.... - ---~°.._....T.
• 9ent~y sfoping In general, Coastal Plain wetlands store more
water than Piedmont wetlands because of the
bwer volume and velocity of surface runoff
from Coastal Plain watersheds.
WATER QUALITY VALUES
Many wetlands are valuable for water quality because they remove pollutants from
surface runoff and small streams. Wetlands with the right characteristics can filter
runoff and transform nutrients into forms that are less available to plants. This
reduces the likelihood of algal blooms, fish kills and nuisance plant growth in
streams and lakes. Water quality values help to ensure that North Carolina waters
remain useful for water supply, aquatic life habitat, recreation and education and
economic uses.
One way that wetlands remove pollutants is through retaining sediments and
adsorbed pollutants. Sediments cazry nutrients and toxicants such as phosphorus,
heavy metals, PCBs, and pesticides adsorbed on their surfaces. Clays are particu-
lazly effective in binding phosphorus in relatively permanent colloids.
The principle factor affecting the ability of a wetland to trap sediments is the
change in velocity or energy level of runoff and stream flow. As sediments are
carried into wetlands, heavier sediments settle out first. Finer sediments such as
2(1

i
r
WATER QUALITY VALUES
clays settle very slowly and may remain suspended. In many situations, sediments
which settle to the bottom are merely temporarily retained before being moved
downstream. For sediments to be retained longer, they must be buried beneath new
sediments.
Wetlands also remove pollutants by transforming the nutrients nitrogen and phos-
phorus into unavailable forms. Tfiese two elements limit the rate of plant growth in
many wetlands and streams, lakes and estuaries in North Carolina. In more aquatic
wetlands such as freshwater mazshes, an overabundance of nitrogen and phosphorus
may cause algal blooms.
Wetland plants temporarily remove nutrients when they absorb them to build plant
tissue. When the plants die or defoliate, microbes and chemical processes in We soil
begin to decompose the plant tissue and release the nutrients. However, the alternat-
ing periods of inundation and dry down in weflands can create conditions in which
these nutrients may be permanently removed.
Figure 4 illustrates the chemical reactions which can permanently remove nitrogen
from a wetland. When wetlands are inundated, animals in the soil and water begin to
~~ _
organ("" ~ ~~ ammonium -~ nitrate ~,~ 9ase9us
nitrogenmicrobes NH q+ NOg- microbes niN2 en
Saturated, anaerobic conditions
Figure 4. Nitrogen removal from wetlands
~oogp o NFi 4' nucruue~ ryU3- o 0 0 0 oodo
Dry, aerobic conditions

VALUES OF WETLANDS
Table 6. Pollutant Removal by Wetlands
Value depends on:'
position relative to
stream, lake or estuary with more value if; ~
• adjacent to stream
• on lake, pond or
estuary shoreline EXAMYLFJEJCPLANATION'
wetlands loser to surface water receive
more frequent and proonged flooding.
y ro ogy • su ace wa er Swamp forests along unchannelized Coastal
rather than rainfall Plain rivers have high rates d phosphorus
or ground water removal because d frequent and prolonged
• perlOdlC overbank ov«bank flooding. Gradual topography in the
flooding area surrounding the wetland suggests that
• flooding remains flooding will remain f« long periods.
long enough to
create anaerobic
conditions
• gradual
topography around
wetland _
___
pan COVer _ _ _ _ _
• WI er anc~ _ _ ~ W _
Dense, wide bands d plants in bottomland
• dense Stands Of hardwood forests retain sediments and
perSlStent attached phosphorus.
herbaceous or
woody plants
'~"
'
'
'
'loca'tion ~iri''wat'ershed""" ~~~fieadwater'o'r'small"' iiansiorm
ieiair. and
can
'iieadwaie'r'io'resis
Stream nutrients in surface runoff before they are

~ washed into mai« streams.
land use to WaterS~le~ • UriJan, agrlCUhUraf Rundt from urban and agricuflural land
or otherwise altered generally contains more nutrients than runoff
landscape from natural areas. Wetlands that receive
more nutrients have greater opportunity to
remove nutrients.
consume dissolved oxygen, eventually creating anaerobic conditions. In these
conditions, organic nitrogen in plant tissue is broken down into ammonium by
bacteria. Some ammonium escapes to the atmosphere. When the wetland dries
and aerobic conditions return, aerobic bacteria convert the ammonium to nitrate
by a process called nitrification. When the wetland is inundated again, another set
of anaerobic microbes converts the nitrate to gaseous nitrogen by a process called
denitrit-ication. The gaseous nitrogen enters the atmosphere and is lost to the
wetland. This complicated process is so effective that lack of nitrogen often limits
the growth of plants in salt marshes and rice cultures.
The alternation of aerobic and anaerobic conditions also helps in removing
phosphorus. Organic phosphorus in plant tissue is broken down into phosphates
by microbes. In flooded anaerobic conditions, the phosphates typically occur in
dissolved form. In aerobic conditions, the phosphorus binds with iron or alumi-
num, becomes insoluble and precipitates. The long-term removal of phosphorus
precipitate depends on deep burial.
The ability of a wetland to remove pollutants depends on its position relative to a
stream or lake, its hydrology, and its plant cover. (The loading rate will also
determine the wetland's ability: above a certain loading rate, the ability of the
wetland to remove pollutants is overwhelmed and no further removal is possible.
_~2

WATER DUALITY VALUES
This factor is of great importance in considering wetlands for treating wastewater or
stotmwater runoff). The opportunity of a wetland to remove pollutants depends on
its location in the watershed and the land use in the watershed.
HABITAT VALUES
Many wetlands supply habitat for plants and animals that benefit people. People
value plants and animals for both moral and practical reasons. Many people believe
that preservation of plant and animal species and their habitat is a moral responsibil-
ity. Others value plants and animals for their pharmaceutical, commercial and
industrial uses that may be discovered in the future. Both groups can appreciate the
knowledge that can be gained through the study of wetland communities and
individual plants and animals. Some people recognize that wetlands function as vital
components in ecological systems, acting as nursery, food pantry and refuge.
Wildlife habitat refers to the value wetlands have in providing habitat for terrestrial
or semi-aquatic animals. Like the other values, the habitat value reflects human
values and priorities, so there is a bias toward mammals, birds and a few reptiles and
amphibians which are popular for nature study or hunting.
Wetlands provide unique possibilities for wildlife. The mix of aquatic and terrestrial
habitats provides a variety of food sources and cover. The high productivity of
marshes provides abundant food for resident and migratory wading birds and
waterfowl. Wetlands may be avoided as land is developed, providing refuges for
wildlife in urban and agricultural areas.
Wetlands provide value to both resident and transient wildlife. Waterfowl and
mammals such as muskrat, beaver, river otter and mink spend most of Weir lives in
wetlands and adjacent water. Many other animals normally use wetlands but are no[
. ~ Flooded wetland
I

VALUES OF WETLANDS
necessarily restricted to them. Deer, bear, foxes, rabbits and turkeys may seek
wetlands for food and shelter. Standing dead trees or "snags" aze important for
wood ducks, woodpeckers, squirrels, bats and deer mice. Semi-aquatic crayfish
often dig underground burrows with conspicuous chimneys on muddy flats. Many
snakes and turtles spend considerable amounts of time hunting, foraging, or taking
shelter in water and wetlands.
The ability of a wetland to provide habitat depends on plant cover, sources of food,
access to water, and size. The opportunity of a wetland to provide habitat depends
on the adjacent land use. Except for the extensive azeas of wet flats, pocosins and
estuaries in the Coastal Plain, most wetlands supply only portions of the habitat
needed. The wildlife in most wetlands must depend on adjacent land and travel
corridors to supply adequate habitat.
Table 7. Wildlife Habitat in Wetlands
Value defends on:
plant cover
with morevalue if:
forested wetlands-
• well-developed
tree, shrub, vine
and herb layers
• mosaic of species
• greater than 80%
canopy closure
• presence of mature
trees
• presence of snags
herbaceous
wetlands-
•mosaic of aquatic
bed, emergent and
shrub species
• greater than 80%
cover
es of tooa • mast-~eanny
hardwoods
• cone-bearing trees
• trees, shrubs and
vines with fleshy
fruits
• variety of aquatic
bed and emergent
wa
feet
use
connection to
permanent water
• part of a wetland
complex _
• greater tFian 3b0
feet wide
• greater than 12
acres in size
• toresteo or wan
natural vegetation
EXAMPLE/EXPLANATION
Pocosins are often used as refuges by black
bear that prefer to forage in wet flats and
bottomland hardwood forests.
Bottomland hardwood forests with oaks,
ashes, shrubs and vines bearing nuts and
fruits support larger mammal and bird
populations than forests without these plants.
Freshwater marshes attract a great van
wildlife in late summer when other water
sources are dry.
Brackish marshes support large populations
of wading birds and ducks. Piedmont and
mountain wetlands will seldom meet these
criteria, even though they provide important
habitat.
.-°----~. ._~__~.~_. -----------------
Wetlands surrounded by natural areas tend to
have higher populations of wildlife than those
surrounded by urban areas.
~~

Aquatic habitat refers [o habitat for animals which are dependent on water for their
entire lives or some portion of their lives. These animals include fish, amphibians,
and invertebrates, although the human bias is toward fish. All of these animals
require the presence of surface water at some time during the year to survive or to
reproduce. However, their preferred habitat differs.
Some animals inhabit permanent bodies of water within wetlands. Fish will typi-
cally be found in permanently flooded freshwater marshes and in streams and lakes
adjacent to wetlands. These areas also provide habitat for aquatic crayfish, adult
insects such as whirligig beetles and insect larvae such as mayflies, caddisflies,
dragonflies and mosquitoes. Some salamanders are aquatic and live their entire lives
in pools in mountain bogs and in seeps.
Wetlands which are periodically flooded provide a second type of aquatic habitat.
Bottomland hardwood forests that are flooded during the spring provide excellent
feeding and spawning areas for fish which live in the adjacent stream. Flooded salt
marshes, salt shrub wetlands and brackish marshes are critical to many species as
marine nurseries.
Ephemeral wetlands that are not directly connected to surface water provide valuable
habitat for many amphibians. These wetlands typically fill in winter and evaporate in
summer. Many frogs and salamanders lay their eggs and pass through juvenile stages
in temporary pools. Fish typically prey on the eggs and young of amphibians but
cannot survive in wetlands which periodically dry down. The adult frogs and other
amphibians inhabit the wetlands and surrounding uplands. To provide good habitat
for a variety of amphibians, these wetlands should fill between November and
January and retain water to at least mid-May. Wetlands that remain filled until July
offer even more favorable habitat. However, ephemeral wetlands which receive only
rainfall may become too acidic; waters below pH 4.5 inhibit amphibian survival and
reproduction (Braswell 1993).
25
The bog turtle, which inhabits mountain bogs, is a threatened species in N.C.

VALUES OF WETLANDS
Table 8. Aquatic Habitat in Wetlands
Value depends. on: 's with snore t-aloe ~f:
; E!CA~IPLFII:XPLAN,A7"IOE~i
>
hydro{Ogy • CdrBdtEf than 10% Freshwater marshes with permanent
of area With inundation support more fish and aquatic
standing water all invertebrates. Bottomland hardwood forests
year O R which are seasonally flooded provide
• overbank flooding spawning, feeding and nursery areas for fish
during spring OR and invertebrates. Pools in ephemeral
• inundated only wetlands, seeps, and mountain bogs provide

during winter and fish-free waters for amphibian reproduction.
Flooded estuarine wetlands provide rich
Spring With no habitat for estuarine fish and shellfish.
connection to
surface water OR
• inundated by lunar
tides
pfanf~cover -~-- ~ g~ealer~tban T~~T- when Hooded, bottomland hardwood forests
Cover by broad- supply large amounts of detritus to aquatic
leaved deciduous grazers. Freshwater marshes and saM
vegetation OR marshes are highly productive and provide a
• greater than 25% wide variety of habitats.
cover by well-
interspersed
patches of plants
and water or
diffuse open
stands
_
Tarid use wifhin 360~~-~~ ~~ _
"~ natu'rally vegeiatec3- _
'weiia~ds'ir; more und~siurbed waie~sneds
feet generally receive fewer toxicants.
The ability of a wetland to provide aquatic habitat depends on its hydrology and
plant cover. The opportunity of a wetland to provide aquatic habitat depends on
the adjacent land use.
Special ecological attributes refer to the value some weflands have as unique
ecological types. Unique ecological types are important because they provide the
specialized, isolated habitat needed by many rare or endangered plant and animal
species. In addition, study of how unique wetlands differ from typical wetlands
can help us understand functions in all wetlands. There are three ways in which a
wetland may provide special ecological attributes: as a rare wetland type, as
habitat for rare or endangered plant or animal species, or as an exceptional
example of a more common wetland type.
Some types of wetlands are extremely rare in North Carolina, occurring at fewer
than 20 sites across the state. Maritime wetland forests on barrier islands,
interdune ponds and wet marl forests are examples. These types generally formed
under special circumstances and probably were never common. Because of their
uniqueness, these wetland types are not included in the descriptions of wetland
types in this field guide. To obtain information about these rare types, consult the
North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, Division of Parks and Recreation.
Wetlands can also be unique in providing habitat for rare or endangered species.
The red-cockaded woodpecker is afederally-listed endangered species which is

HUMAN USE VALUES
most commonly associated with mature upland pine forests. In North Carolina, it
can also be found in wet flats. The American alligator, afederally-listed threatened
species, is a fairly common inhabitant of swamp forests and freshwater marshes
south of Dare County and within 50 miles of the coast. The Venus' flytrap is found
in wet pine savannas (a subtype of wet flats) and other wetlands only within a 75-
mile radius of Wilmington. Bog turtles are found in scattered locations in bogs, bog
forests and wet meadows throughout the mountains. Many other species are
considered endangered, threatened, or of special concern by the North Carolina
Wildlife Resources Commission or the North Carolina Plant Conservation Program.
About two-thirds of these plants and animals occur in wetlands.
Three wetland types described in this field guide frequently provide habitat for rare
species. These wetland types were more common in the past but have become
uncommon or rare due to drainage and conversion to other uses. Wet pine savannas
were once abundant on the Coastal Plain, but examples of good quality are now rare
because of conversion and fire suppression (NHP 1993). As a consequence, many of
the herbs characteristic of natural pine savannas have become rare or endangered.
Similarly, the shrubs and herbs characteristic of undisturbed mountain bogs have
become rare. Many ephemeral wetlands have been filled or drained, eliminating the
habitat that many amphibian species depend on for breeding.
Finally, some wetlands are unique as exceptional examples of more common
wetland types. Undisturbed old growth forest is rare in North Carolina and it is
considered valuable whether it occurs as bottomland hardwood forest, swamp forest
or another wetland type. Wet flats dominated by mature bottomland oaks or mixed
hardwoods are also unusual. In addition, a more common wetland type which occurs
in a physiographic province where it would not be expected is considered "disjunct"
and therefore valuable. A wet pine savanna or mountain bog occurring in the
Piedmont is an example of this type.
Table 9. Special Ecological Attributes of Wetlands
Value depends on: 3 with more value if. k EXAMPLFJEXPLAt~JATIOIV
"extrern'ely rare wetland ~ listed as~§ucfi in ~" ° The iocaiions oi~aii'documenied maritime ~""~~~
type Natural Heritage wetland forests are listed in the NHP
Pro ram data base database.
wet an type nown to • pine savanna Mountain bogs provide favorable habitat for
support rare species • mountain bog bog turtles as well as rare amphibians.
• ephemeral wetland
excep Iona examp e o • un lstur e o The swamp forests along the Black River are
a COmmOn type growth forest remarkable f« their great age and stature.
• wet flat in Coastal
Plain dominated by
hardwoods
27

VALUES C1F ti'UE ~ LANDS
DIRECT USE VALUES
Direct use values are based on the direct use of wetlands by people. Some drrect
uses of a wetland can occur without removing or permanently decreasing other
wetland values. In contrast, filling wetlands that provide hydrological, water
quality or habitat values in order to construct urban development or roads will
permanently remove wetland values. Wetlands can often continue to provide
these other values when they are used for recreation and education, timber
production or hunting leases.
Recreation and education refers to the value wetlands have in providing areas
for boW consumptive and non-consumptive use. Consumptive uses involve
hunting and fishing while non-consumptive uses include studying birds or plants,
canoeing and aesthetic appreciation. Use of wetlands for recreation and education
can provide health benefits through physical conditioning and relief of stress. In
addition, purchases of recreational equipment, travel and lodging provide
economic benefits to equipment manufacturers and local communities.

Boardwalk through a cypress swamp at Pettigrew State Park,
Washington Co.

VALUES OF TYPES
The ability of a wetland to be used for recreation and education depends on plant
and animal populations, aesthetics, direct access to open water and amenities. The
opportunity of a wetland to be used for recreation depends on adjacent land use and
public accessibility. For wetlands, accessibility may be via public roads or public
waterways.
Table 10. Recreation and Education in Wetlands

Valuedepend~ on: ~
with mare value if: j - -
EXAMPLEIE?CPLANATION
plant and anima{ ~ • healthy, diverse Many visitors are drawn by the possibility of
populations populations sighting animals or observing unusual plants
• rare species or in pine savannas.
unusual specimens
a--BSthe~ics o~-W@~lanCd~-- -~ no evl~c ence of- It access is possible, pristine sites are more
and surrounding disturbance popular with visitors. The absence of trash
landscape • no trash or may discourage littering.
abandoned cars
____
access-fo open wafer ____ _
__
• difeC~ Views ahci _ _ _
Open water in marshes attracts both animals
aCC2SS and visitors.
-amenities ___- ~ ~~-pa~kirig i`aciliiies State parks with parking, boardwalks and
• Well-malntalned restrooms receive more visitors than
trails or boardwalks undeveloped sites.
• docks, decks and
boat ramps
• restrooms
_ _
a JBCBfIf ~n usCl------E --~---- _
• un Is urged na~Urar Trails along New Hope Creek in Duke Forest
COmmunttlOS Or are popular, despite the close proximity of
agriculture residential development. The deveopment is
•low-density, Well- low-density and atiradively landscaped.
landscaped
residential
• predominantly
natural sou
nd
s

aCCOSSIiJlilty ____ _
_
__
_
• near pu6~ic roads
Development of a canoe trail and canoe rental
• on publicly facility al Merchants Millpond State Parts
accessible greatly increased the number of visitors.
waterwa s
Timber production refers to the economic value of wetlands for producing sawtim-
ber and pulpwood. Most of the wetlands which are dominated by trees today have
been logged in the past. Many will be logged in the future. In addition, thousands of
acres of wetlands in eastern North Carolina are being managed for the production
of pine.
In North Carolina, timber is produced through both natural regeneration and
intensive management. Intensive management usually involves site preparation,
planting, fertilization, and sometimes controlled burning to reduce hardwood
competition. Some wetlands such as wet flats can be productive with no additional
drainage or fertilization. Other wetlands such as powsins require elaborate drainage
systems and soil fertilization in order to be productive. Best management practices
can be used to provide the best assurance of the continuing value of wetlands for
timber production. In cooperation with the forest industry, the State has developed
recommendations for road construction and maintenance, stream crossing, erosion
control, harvesting and logging, and regeneration and reforestation (FRD 1990).
29

VALUES OF WETLANDS
The value of a wetland for timber production depends on the wetland type, the
value of standing trees and the size of the tract. The value of a site for long-term
intensive management also depends on soil fertility and, quite frequently, on the
practicality of drainage.
Table 11. Timber Production in Wetlands
~
Value depends on: with more value if-.
i EXAMPLFIEXPLA(~IATIOf~T
wetland type ' • mature bottomlarid ' these weuand types nave higher potential
hardwood forest growth rates due to greater soil fertility and
• Wet flat less wetness.
• high pocosin
ine savanna
__ ______ ___ _
sian~g `trees - ~~ ~ ~ _ ___
~~ healt}1y Pines, ~~~~~ ~ _
Stands of large healthy trees produce more
Oaks Or SpeClalty limber at greater economic value. Specialty
WOOdS woods such as Atlantic white cedar have
• average diameter is greater economic value per board toot.
greater than 10
inches
• basal area >_ 100
square feet per
acre
size o we an • grea er ~an f Large trails are less expensive to manage
acres and yield more timber.
y r0 Ogy • re atlVery-- C~r)% ---~~~~--~~~_ Wetlands with these characteristics are
• drainabe by easier to convert to intensive management.
ditching
SOI e I I ~Ertlle fTlln~-~B~B~-SOI)~ Wetlands with these characteristics will
re uire less fertilizer to be reductive.
ATING THE AMOUNT OF LUMBER
How many square feet of lumber could be produced from a given stand of
trees? Foresters use a prism to estimate the basal area, but you can
also sight by hand.
Extend one arm parallel to the ground at chest height with fist closed and
thumb pointing up. Count how many trees are equal to or wider than
your thumb. Continue counting as you rotate 360 degrees.
Multiply the number of trees by 10 to yield the number of square feet of
lumber per acre of timber.
A tract with greater than 100 syuare feet per acre and with average tree
diameter of greater than 10 inches is a good site.
Hunting leases refers to the economic value obtained by leasing wetlands for
hunting. In North Carolina, waterfowl, bear, dear, raccoon, and turkey are often
hunted in wetlands. Leases generally run from September to May with the land-

t
1
1
VALUES OF TYPES
Table 12. Hunting Leases in Wetlands
Valuedepends on: s;. ; with inure v31ue ifc j:EXAIG1PLElEX1'L,~NATIOf~T ?=
specialized habitat for ~ • mosaic Of marsh ~ Hunters may be willing to pay more for hunting
game species ~ plants for waterfowl leases in choice waterfowl habitat than for
Q R other types of hunting. Freshwater marshes
• new growth and have been leased for $25300 per acre while
open canopy for leases for deer habitat bring about $1 per
deer OR acre. Brackish marshes visited by migratory
• flooded trees for ~'~'aterfowl are also popular in North Carolina.
wood duck OR Swamp forests are popular for hunting wood

• good cover but duck and turkey.
passable by
hunters and dogs for
game birds
...... ....................................
a lOr1 ......... .... ..... ... y.,.......
•OU~~SId@ O~'Cli" flml~'S ............9.......................................y...........ry........
Huntin leases in Halifax Count are ve
• privately-owned popular, as this area lies about t30 miles from
land Raleigh on major highways. Leases in
• within a One-hour Granville, Nash and Johnston Counties are
drive of a population increasing, as these lie about 30 miles from
center Raleigh on major roads.
_
size ~ greater 1Fiati~ Wetlands must be of adequate size to provide
acres of specialized habitat and to minimize safety hazards on
habitat OR adjacent properties.
• greater than 100
acres
owner reserving the right to renew. North Carolina trappers generally do not
purchase leases but obtain written permission from landawners. Publicly-owned
land is also valuable for hunting, but this is considered a recreational use since no
lease is necessary.
The value of a wetland for hunting leases depends on good habitat for game
animals, accessibility and location.
VALUES OF WETLAND TYPES
Values are ultimately tied to specific wetlands because they depend on site specific
factors such as location, human population pressure and the relative extent of the
resource. Even with a type, wetlands vary significantly in their hydrology, vegeta-
tion and soil. However, it is possible to identify types which demonstrate particular
values well. Table 13 lists the values~that the 14 types of wetlands discussed in the
Field Guide are likely to demonstrate. The values marked are for wetlands in their
natural state reacher than a modified condition. Pocosins, for example, are not
considered highly valuable for timber because they require draining and heavy
fertilization.
`31

VALUES OF WETLANDS
Table 13. Relative Values for the Wetland Types
H YtSgO=' ;i,INA 1"EA
lOG1CA~ 'QUAI.- lfABITAT YAI.V~ UIRUGT ~It11
a` YALFIE'' 7TY (VALUE';.
VALUE
a ~° cr
WE1"LANb ° ~ ~~~ ~ o `~~ ~ ~ r`A/
c~°~ Cp'~'~~ ~ ~,~5~ ~a~~ J°r ~O ca ~c~ Jc
T V g G '. ~ a~ .P ~° a .Q' O ,A r
wet~flats ~~.::~~~ r__ _
pocosins
ephemeral
wetlands
See l~ ti ~~
......:: ......:.
mountain bogs c ........i 5 ........I
~ t .......:i .. ......i ........> ~ .......:I ~. .........
E j:......::.
__
bog forests ' ,
headwater
forests

°
E
- -
':

bottomland ~~.,.
hardwood r ~
`r~.,v
€
~~~~~~~~~
t
forests
swamp forests a
freshwater
marshes
estuarine fringe:
forests €
brackish
marshes
...............................

.:..............

............ ...........

p...........

.

......... .......
E
......
salt shrub
wetlands

:
.................................

salt marshes a.......................
. ........................ .
' .........;.........
.. .. ..

1
s
i
^
^
i
s
1
TYPE DESCRIPTIONS
MAJOR TYPES OF
NORTH CAROLINA
WETLANDS
Classification of wetlands combines wetlands with similaz characteristics and
values to facilitate the description of these systems. This chapter presents 14 major
wetland types grouped by their hydrologic characteristics. By using the wetland key
and the descriptions of wetland types, you should be able to identify many wetlands
that you encounter in the field.
CLASSIFYING WETLANDS
There aze many different classification schemes for wetlands. Some schemes like
the National Wetlands Inventory use detailed descriptions of hydrology and
vegetation to classify wetlands. Others rely primarily on the identification of plants.
All schemes must deal with the difficulties of assigning wetlands which occur along
a continuum into discrete categories. Because of the diversity of wetlands, it is
inevitable that observers will encounter examples which do not fit well into
established categories. This problem is increased by examples of wetlands which
have unique characteristics.
The classification scheme used in this Field Guide is based on those characteristics
observable in the field which were introduced in previous chapters. These include
the source of water, the level of saturation or inundation, the composition and
texture of soils, and the form and species of dominant plants. In addition, this
classification considers the general appearance of the wetland, its position in the
landscape and its general shape. Based on these characteristics, North Cazolina
wetlands aze classified into 14 general types in this chapter.
EXPLANATION OF TYPE DESCRIPTIONS
Hydrology determines the chazacter of wetlands-those wetlands which shaze
common sources of water also share certain features. To simplify the presentation
of wetland types in this chapter, the fourteen types aze grouped based on their
hydrologic characteristics. Four of these groups, shown in Figure 5, aze freshwater
wetlands:
• wetlands sustained primarily by rainfall. These receive little ground
or surface water.
• wetlands sustained primarily by ground water dischazge. These receive little
surface water.
• wetlands sustained by a combination of freshwater sources which may include
33

TYPES OF WETLANDS
surface runoff, streamflow, overbank flooding or ground water flow
• wetlands on rivers or lakes, sustained by overbank flooding, surface and
ground water flow parallel to streams
A fifth group is made up of those wetlands which are influenced by the ocean:
• estuarine wetlands which are heavily influenced by the ocean through lunar
tides, flood fides and salt spray.
In the pages that follow, each of these five groups of wetlands is preceded by an
overview of their formation and common characteristics. Then a description of
each wetland type in the group is presented. The description for each wetland type
includes six sections: Profile, Overview, Value, Threats, Similar Types and Sites
to Visit. To assist you in using the description for each type, the terms and
contents used in each section are discussed here.
`'
c
~
~
~ pocosins,
~~
a wet flats

`'
n
ay~
CJC ephemeral
tl
d o' N~
~
~v, ~ \ we
an
~~
°
c ~---' ~O'~
7
~
.mac
o o~
~~ ~
headwater forests, ~
rd
d
mountain bog forests ~ o
7
'~ ~'o
- bogs-----~~
~ freshwater marshes
~ bottomland hardwood
seeps
~ forests, swamp forests
increasing reliance
on surface water
Figure 5. Freshwater wetlands by primary source of water (adapted from
Brinson 1993)
DISTRIBUTION
North Carolina may be described in terms of five physiographic provinces: the
Mountains, the Piedmont, the Sandhills, the Inner Coastal Plain and the Outer
Coastal Plain. The location of each of these provinces is shown in Figure 6. While
the Sandhills, the Inner Coastal Plain and the Outer Coastal Plain provinces may
all be considered parts of the coastal plain, it's convenient to discuss these areas
separately since they have distinct landforms, hydrology, soils and vegetation.
The Mountains province is made of up of the steep mountainous terrain of the
Blue Ridge Mountains system, a portion of the southern Appalachian Mountains.
34

1
a
1
1
^
i
1
TYPE DESCRIPTIONS
The Blue Ridge system in North Carolina contains portions of the Great, Smoky,
Unaka, Unicoi, Black, Pisgah, Nantahala and other mountain ranges. Its land-
forms vary from steep mountain ridges to broad basins and valleys between the
mountains. These landforms are the result of three separate geologic periods of
mountain raising followed by extended periods of erosion. The underlying rocks
are primarily granite or other silica-containing rocks. Ground water percolating
through these rocks becomes slightly acidic, supporting the development of plant
communities made up of acid-tolerant plants.
Wetlands are relatively rare in the Mountain province, making up no more than 1
percent of the landscape (DEM 1994). Mountain bogs and bog forests are most
characteristic of the higher elevations above 1,200 feet. In the lower Mountains,
seeps and headwater forests may occur on lower hillsides. Bottomland hardwood
forests and freshwater marshes are found in the lower elevations in broad stream
valleys. Ephemeral wetlands and swamp forests are rarely found in Mountain
stream v~na.,~
LEGEND
Mountains ®InnerCoastalPlain
Piedmont Outer Coastal Plain
0 Sandhills
In the western Piedmont, low isolated mountains rise from We flat plain, a land
form which reminded early settlers of the foothills or "piedmont" of southern
Europe (Godfrey 1980). However, the Piedmont has come W refer to all of the
area between the Blue Ridge escarpment and the fall line at the edge of the
Coastal Plain. The central and eastern Piedmont varies from gently rolling hills to
long low ridges. Despite its gentle landscape, the geologic history of the Piedmont
is complex, featuring faults and rifts, mountain raising and erosion, marine
volcanoes and inland seas (Beyer 1991).
Wetlands are somewhat more abundant in the Piedmont province than in the
Mountains. Wetlands make up about 4 percent of the landscape of the Piedmont
(DEM 1994). Seeps and headwater forests occur in the foothills, on hillsides and
at the base of slopes above floodplains. Bottomland hardwood forests occupy
portions of floodplains along medium to large stream valleys. Swamp forests
occur along a few large rivers. Freshwater marshes have developed along many
reservoirs and, with the rettun of the beaver, in beaver ponds. Ephemeral wetlands
occur in depressions and floodplains scattered across the Piedmont.
;5

TYPES OF WETLANDS
The Inner Coastal Plain occupies the area from the fall line to the Suffolk Scarp
and the southeastern portion of the state, excluding estuarine azeas. The fall line is
identified by low rapids where rivers descend from the Piedmont uplands to the
flat Coastal Plain. Below the fall line, streams slow and broaden, eventually
discharging into the Atlantic Ocean. The Suffolk Scarp marks the easternmost of
a series of ancient shorelines extending across the Inner Coastal Plain.
North Carolina's Coastal Plain is composed of a series of flat terraces from the
fall line to the present shoreline. Beginning 1.7 million years ago, world-wide
climate changes caused sea level to rise or fall as ice caps and glaciers melted or
expanded. Over hundreds of thousands of years, the sea advanced and retreated
over the land, leaving behind a series of shoreline terraces. Beach scarps, or steep
slopes, marked the edge of these terraces just as they mazk the edge of modem
beaches. Remains of the easternmost scarp, the Suffolk Scarp, can sflll be seen
along State Routes 32 and 306 in Gates, Washington and Beaufort counties. The
remains appeaz as a low ridge up to 15 feet high, with the land sloping away to
the east. Unlike the Suffolk Scarp, most of the scarps separating the terraces have
been eroded away, leaving a nearly flat landscape cut by wandering, low gradient
rivers.
Carolina bays are unique landforms in the Inner and Outer Coastal Plain. In aerial
photographs, they appear as oval ponds or forests with their long axes oriented
from northwest to southeast. Many geologists now believe that the Cazolina bays
were formed 40,000 years ago by wind-generated wave action. During a glacial
period with lowered sea level, high rainfall and high water tables created thou-
sands of shallow ponds in the Coastal Plain. Prevailing strong winds created wave
patterns in the ponds that eroded their shorelines. Over time, the ponds were
shaped into similar oval shapes with a uniform orientation from northwest to
southeast. Aerial photographs suggest that there may be as many as 20,000 bays
in the Atlantic Coastal Plain, most of them in North and South Cazolina and
Georgia. Because the hydrology and plants in Cazolina bays vary from site to site,
a variety of wetland and non-wetland community types occupies bays.
Wetlands aze abundant in the Inner Coastal Plain. Wet flats and powsins cover
thousands of acres in interstream divides. Headwater forests grade into extensive
swamp forests and bottomland forests along most rivers. Freshwater marshes can
be found in natural lakes in Carolina bays and at the mouths of sounds. A few
ephemeral wetlands may be found in floodplains or in clay-based Carolina bays.
Carolina bays may also contain swamp forests or pocosins.
In the southwestern corner of the Inner Coastal Plain adjacent to the Piedmont, an
area with distinct chazacteristics is referred to as the Sandhills. Geologists believe
that this azea, like many azeas of the Inner Coastal Plain, was orginally covered
by sandy clays washed down from the eroding Piedmont (Beyer 1991). These
sandy clays were gradually eroded into a landscape of rolling hills. At the same
time, rainfall seeped through the soil, transporting clay particles from surface
layers to deeper layers. The loose sands left in the top layers were reworked by
;~ .

t
i
S
TYPE DESCRIPTIONS
winds into sand dunes and interdune depressions. As a result, rainfall drains rapidly
through the soil, a situation which is generally unfavorable for the formation of
wetlands. However, lens-shaped deposits of clay beneath hillsides and in interdune
depressions allow wetlands to develop where ground water accumulates or emerges
as seeps.
Wetlands are less common in the Sandhills province than in the Inner or Outer
Costal Plain, but they are more common than wetlands in the Piedmont. Seeps and
headwater forests occur on hillsides and along narrow drains between slopes. Wet
flats (particularly wet pine savannas) and pocosins are found in interstream divides
in the Sandhills. Along medium to large streams, bottomland hardwood forests and
swamp forests may be found. Freshwater marshes may develop in beaver ponds.
Ephemeral wetlands occur in isolated locations in interdune depressions or in
floodplains.
The Outer Coastal Plain consists of the area from the Suffolk Scarp to the upper
limit of mean sea level, including those areas along the southeastern vast influ-
enced by salt water. Like the Inner Coastal Plain, this province includes faint traces
of terraces and ancien[ beach scarps and barrier islands. The scarps and islands
have been eroded away in most areas, leaving an almost flat landscape for the 30 to
80 mile width of the Outer Coastal Plain.
The character of the northern coast, from the Virginia border to Morehead City,
differs from that of the southern coast. After the last glacial period about 14,000
years ago, the Atlantic Ocean began rising rapidly, depositing marine sediments in
estuaries. Along the northern coast, the rising sea flooded estuaries and the mouths
of rivers and created embayed, or enclosed, sounds. (While the rise in sea level has
slowed in the last 5,000 years, it is still estimated to rise at about one foot per
century.) The southern coast has neither large estuaries nor embayed sounds.
The terraces of the Outer Coastal Plain are crossed by sediment-filled rivers from
the Piedmont. As these rivers discharge into sounds, they create estuaries at their
mouths. The Chowan and the Roanoke Rivers, originating in the Virginia Pied-
mont, flow into Albemarle Sound. The Tar-Pamlico and Neuse Rivers flow into
Pamlico Sound. The Cape Fear River, which drains the southern part of the Coastal
Plain, discharges duectiy into the Atlantic Ocean.
The Outer Coastal Plain also includes the barrier islands, which represent the dune
ridges on the outermost terrace of the Coastal Plain. About 5,000 years ago, the
rising sea separated these ridges from the mainland by shallow embayed sounds.
Wetlands are abundant in the Outer Coastal Plain, although relatively few types
dominate. Salt marshes and brackish marshes cover extensive areas. Salt scrub
wetlands and estuarine fringe wetlands are common, although they cover less area.
Wet flats and pocosins are abundant in interstream divides. Freshwater marshes
occur at the mouths of rivers that are removed from ocean inlets. Ephemeral
wetlands occur in a few locations in interdune depressions or on barrier islands.
}7~

TYPES OF WETLANDS
PROFILE
Each wetland type has a characteristic profile which describes its distribution,
landscape position, typical hydrology, soils, and dominant plants. The "Land-
scape position" is the geographical position where you're likely to find each type
of wetland, varying from interstream divides to estuaries. However, each wetland
type may occasionally be found in other locations than those listed. `"Typical
hydrology" describes the amount of saturation or inundation and the likely source
of water. "Soils" describes whether the soils are organic or mineral. In some
cases, specific textures can be listed for a wetland type. (For more complete
listings of soil series, consult the Classification of Natural Communities of North
Carolina, NHP 1990). "Dominant plants" lists the common name, scientific
name, and indicator status of the dominant plants for each type of wetland. The
plants are listed in general order from most dominant to least dominant. Scien-
tific names are listed according to Radford et al. (1968). The codes for indicator
status are presented in Table 3. A "plus" with the indicator status suggests that
the plant tends towards wetlands; a "minus" suggests that the plant tends toward
non-wetland conditions.
OVERVIEW
The discussion of each wetland type includes an overview that discusses the
wetland's general appearance, distinctive features, subtypes, associated types and
abundance. Subtypes are wetlands which fit the category in general terms, but
which may vary in one or more characteristics from the predominant type.
Associated types are wetlands which can be expected to occur in the same
vicinity as the wetland type.
VALUES
While it is impossible to specify the values of any wetland without examining it
in detail, it is possible to make some generalizations. Because the wetlands
within a type have similar characteristics, they may be expected to provide
similar values. This section discusses these values.
TI~iEATS
This section discusses human activities that threaten the type. These activities
may range from suppression of fue to filling weilands for urban development.
The next chapter discusses modifications to wetlands in greater depth.
SIMII,AR TYPES
Each wetland type shares certain characteristics wiW other wetland types. Similar
types of wetlands will ordinarily occur together in the wetland key or within the
same grouping. Characteristics which will help you to distinguish between types
are suggested in this section.
STIES TO VISIT
Identifying a wetland type often relies on perception of subtle differences and
overall character. It is often helpful to visit a good example of a type before
attempting to identify an unknown example. This section offers a list of publicly-
38

KEY TO TYPES
owned, reasonably-accessible wetlands which exhibit variations of the type. A
compass icon by an example shows that this is an example of exceptional quality.
To visit these sites, you will need a good map, such as those in an atlas, to follow
in addition to the directions in this guide.
KEY TO WETLAND TYPES
To assist you in making an initial identification of the wetland type, a key to types
is shown in Figure 7. This key focuses on those characteristics which are easiest to
identify in the field---the landscape position, form of plants and, in some cases,
obvious hydrologic indicators. You may notice that some types appear more than
once in the key; this occurs because different plants may dominate in different
circumstances.
To identify the type of a particular wetland, follow the key as a first approxima-
tion. After you've made an initial identification of the type, check the description
under the type for consistency. If the particular wetland does not seem to fit the
description, check the similar types. If the wetland does not seem to fit one of these
types, attempt a different path through the key. While wetlands vary dramatically,
most wetlands will fall into the 14 categories presented here. However, there will
be exceptions.
no plants present -
soe pago 42 '.
shrubs -see
Pa4o 40
estuarine
not estuarine I
cbse away from varlery of herbs in mountains
to inlets inlets and dominated
by Sphagnum
salt marsh j (brackish marsh
BEGIN HERE
~ plants present ~
predominantly
herbs
zones of mowteln
small area ~
with no aquatic &
aquatic plants emergent
plants
P~
° mB~ heshwat
wetland marsh
Figure 7. Key to Wetland Types (herbs)

TYPES OF WETLANDS
This classification does not include wetland types which occur at fewer than 20
sites across the state, according to the records of the Natural Heritage Program.
For information on rare types of wetlands, consult the more extensive classifica-
tion scheme included in Classification of the Natural Communities of North
Carolina: Third Approximation (NHP 1990).
shrubs
uy
~ not estuarine
estuarine
salt shrub I mostly waxy
wetland evergreen shrubs
pocosin I in the mountains and
underlain by Sphagnum
mountain bog
Figure 7. Key to Major Wetland Types [shrubs]
with few trees
immufureor disturbed
wotlanda typo -project
mature state end sea
page 42
~:

KEY TO TYPES
mxares of trees,
ehnbe end Mfie
on margin of
nol on margin
estuary of aeaary
estuerlne
iringe tweet no dislncl steam pooAy drained large area on
present or tandwabr bottornlande In rnanWtta myor s tream
stream or fiver
bog tweet

smell depression
at base of dope on ddge or along stied b reintell
large area on broad ~
re
g
rourM water Madwater stream
inlersheam divide r
~
s
ephemeral wedand
wep MadwaW tweet

diverse, wdl- domneted by
sense shrubs Oevebped tree, gpreea andror
mostly waxy shnbe mostly ahM and Mrb apeb gum with
evergreens de°duous or layere law Mrbe
absent

pocoein wet flat
bottomlarM ewemp lonel
hardwood tweet
Figure 7. Key to Major Wetland Types [trees, shrubs and herbs)

TYPES OF WETLANDS
no plants present
cleared
disturbed area-
`'hydrology may small area
'suggest original with evidence
'''w©tland type' of periodic drying
aphemerel wetland
Figure 7. Key to major Wetlands Types (no plants)
stream or deepwater -
habfia!
not a wetland
WETLANDS SUSTAINED BY RAINFALL
On the broad interstream divides of the North Carolina Coastal Plain, rainfall is
the primary source of water for wetlands. But rainfall also creates small wetlands
in depressions across the state. Three general types of wetlands are sustained by
rainfall rather than surface or ground water: wet flats, pocosins and ephemeral
wetlands. These wetlands develop where rain accumulates in depressions or over
impermeable layers of soil.
FORMATION
Wet flats, pocosins and ephemeral wetlands require an impervious base of clay or
peat in order to hold rainfall. Ephemeral wetlands occur in a variety of soils. Wet
flats typically develop on mineral soils with subsurface layers of clay or fine,
compacted silt. Such wetlands can be effectively drained by ditches if the ditch
penetrates the impervious layer.
Pocosins typically develop where layers of peat, the decayed remains of plants,
have accumulated. In some areas, peat deposits several feet thick have developed
over centuries, blocking ancient stream valleys and filling depressions. Peat
domes slightly elevated above the surrounding landscape have developed in a few
areas. Peat-based wetlands are difficult to drain by ditching. Peat tends to hold
water rather than conduct it, so ditches only drain water from the immediate area.
However, severe fires can burn through thick peat layers and are believed to be
the origin of lakes such as Lake Mattamuskeet.
area
inundated
42~-

t
RAINFALL
CHARACTERISTICS
The hydrology of wet flats, pocosins and ephemeral wetlands results primarily
from the interaction of rain and evapotranspiration. Due to the low gradient in
these areas, there is little surface runoff except subtle sheet flow. Most rain
remains where it falls. In winter, rain accumulates because of low evapotranspira-
tion. Depressions fill and perched water tables rise above the soil surface. Standing
surface water may linger for several months. As spring progresses into summer,
however, evapotranspiration increases and water levels are drawn down. During
the summer and fall, these wetlands may not even appear to be moist at the soil
surface.
In the Coastal Plain, the soils in wet flats, pocosins and ephemeral wetlands
usually consist of reworked marine sediments, clay and peat with limited amounts
of the nutrients necessary for plant growth. Thick peat is especially poor in nutrient
content, resulting in stunted plants with slow growth. Ephemeral wetlands in the
Piedmont and Mountains occur as small inclusions in a variety of soil series.
Fire plays an important part in the ecology of wet flats and pocosins. Under natural
conditions, these wetlands were subject to wildfires which reduced the amount of
leaf and branch litter and released nutrients in the form of ash. The accumulation
of peat was governed by the ratio of plant production, biological breakdown and
removal by burning. Over time, the frequency and severity of fires interacted with
the hydrology and depth of peat to determine the wetland type. However, most of
these wetlands have been greatly affected by efforts to suppress natural fires.
Some of the plant species that are most common in these wetland types have
special adaptations to periodic fine. Seedlings of longleaf pine spend up to five
years in the "grass" stage, developing a long tap root but little above-ground
growth. Then in a single growing season, the shoo[ grows to a height of five to
eight feet, above the level of low-intensity fires. The pond pine has adapted to fue
by developing cones which only release sheds when they are heated. This ensures
that seeds are released when the soil is most fertile, after a fire releases nutrients
from litter. Many rare herbs occur only in areas which have been burned to allow
sunlight in and release nutrients. Pocosins are dominated by shrubs of the Families
Ericaceae and Aquifoliaceae; these shrubs sprout readily from their roots after their
tops are burned away. The pond pine also sprouts from its trunk after fires, making
it appear to be covered with coarse green fur.
In general, wet flats and powsins are common and extensive in the Coastal Plaii-.
However, many acres of these types have been converted to agriculture or pine
plantations. Ephemeral wetlands are poorly documented, but undisturbed examples
are thought to be rare in North Carolina.
a;..

TYPES OF WETLANDS
WET FLATS
PROFILE
Distribution: Sandhills, Inner and Outer Coastal Plain.
Landscape position: generally flat areas in interstream divides. Subtle differences
in internal topography may be present. Stream channels are usually absent but
ditches are frequently present.
Typical hydrology: seasonally saturated or inundated by a high or perched water
table. Summer water tables may be three or more feet below the surface.
Soils: mineral soils or slightly organic soils. Longleaf pine subtypes tend to occur
on moist sandy soils while non-pine subtypes occur on clayey or slightly organic
soils. Loblolly pine subtypes occur on a wide variety of soils. Wet flats often have
a dense layer of clay two to three feet below the surface.
Dominant plants:
Loblolly pine subtypes-variable depending on human activities but usually
dominated by loblolly pine.
Trees: Loblolly pine, Pinus taeda FAC
Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
Sweetgum, Liquidambar styraciflua FAC+
Swamp tupelo, Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora OBL
Shrubs: Horsesugar, Symplocos tinctoria FAC
Hollies and gallberries, Ilex spp. FAC to OBL
Herbs: Cane, Arundinaria gigantea FACW
Longleaf pine subtypes-an open to sparse tree canopy usuall y dominated by
longleaf pine, with few shrubs to scattered shrubs and awell-developed herb layer.
The herb layer is usually dominated by wire grass, but on some sites may be highly
diverse. ~
Trees: Longleaf pine, Pinus palustris FACU+
Pond pine, Pinus serotina FACW+
Shrubs: Hollies and gallberries, Ilez spp. FAC to OBL
Huckleberries, Gaylussacia spp. FACU to FAC
Herbs: Wire grass, Aristida stricta FAC-
Cane, Arundinaria gigantea FACW
Beakrush, Rhynchospora spp. FAC to OBL
Non-pine subtypes-well-developed tree layers, sparse to dense shrub layers and
sparse herbs. Bald cypress and swamp tupelo dominate on somewhat wetter sites
with slightly organic soils. Wetland oaks dominate on somew hat drier sites with
loamy or clayey soils.
Trees: Bald cypress, Taxodium distichium OBL
Swamp tupelo, Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora OBL
Swamp chestnut oak, Quercus michauxii FACW-
Laurel oak, Quercus laurifolia FACW
44

i
Cherrybark oak, Quercus falcata var. pagodaefolia
Red maple, Acer rubrum
Sweetgum, Liquidambar sryraciflua
Loblolly pine, Pinus taeda
Shrubs: Sweet pepperbush, Clethra alnifolia
Herbs: Cane, Arundinaria gigantea
Virginia chainfern, Woodwardia virginica
Netted chainfern, Woodwardia areolata
Sedges, Carex spp.
Sphagnum moss, Sphagnum spp.
Vines: Laurel-leaf greenbriar, Smilax laurifolia
RAINFALL
FAC+
FAC
FAC+
FAC
FACW
FACW
OBL
OBL
OBL
to FAC
FACW+
Shrubby forests, both natural and managed, still cover much of the Coastal Plain
and Sandhills of North Carolina. Despite their dry appearance in late summer
and fall, many of these forests are sufficiently wet to have hydric soils and to
support wetland plants. Wet flats are characterized by wide fluctuations in the
level of their water tables. In the winter, rainfall saturates the ground and can
create localized inundation. When trees increase their evapotranspiration in
spring, the water table drops rapidly and by late summer the ground surface may
be dry.
The character of wet flats varies widely due to human modification. Much of the
area that formerly supported longleaf pine and non-pine subtypes has been
drained and converted to loblolly pine subtypes. Some of these areas are
managed as pine plantations, with regular burning to control hardwoods,
scheduled timber harvesting and replanting in loblolly pine. Pine plantations
typically have greater tree density and size than more natural communities. The
greater density of pines leads to higher rates of evapotranspiration and, conse-
quently, less saturation and inundation during the winter months.
In areas where the original subtypes remain, they differ according to soil texture
and fue frequency. Frequent low-intensity fires on moist sandy soils favor the
development of the longleaf pine subtypes. Sites that are burned most frequently
may become wet pine savannas. The term "savanna" is used throughout the
world to denote communities with a grassy, meadow-like herb layer and an open
tree canopy with litfle shrub layer. In North Carolina, some of these park-like
forests are seasonally saturated, meeting the criteria for wetlands. Sites that are
burned every 3 to 5 years during the growing season develop a highly diverse
herb layer and a suppressed shrub layer. On these sites, grasses, sedges, asters,
goldenrods, sunflowers, orchids or lilies may occur in addition to wiregrass.
Suppression of fires in longleaf pine subtypes allows more shrubs and hard-
woods to survive. Today, the majority of sites dominated by longleaf pine have
scattered shrubs. Those sites with evergreen shrubs may resemble open pocosins.
a5

TYPES OF WETLANDS
Wetflat

A savanna, a subtype of wetflats, located in the Sandhills gamelands, Scotland Co.

t
i
RAINFALL
Few Fires on clayey, loamy or slightly organic soil favor the development of non-
pine subtypes dominated by bald cypress and swamp tupelo or by wetland oaks.
These wet flats are superficially similaz to swamp forests and bottomland hazd-
wood forests. However, they are somewhat drier than these riverine wetlands and
are inundated by ground water rather than overbank flooding. Many of these sites
have been altered by harvesting bald cypress and Atlantic white cedar. Drier
conditions caused by ditching have allowed red maple and sweetgum to become
more common.
At their edges, wet flats grade into upland communities, pocosins, or swamp
forests. The difference between wet flats and adjacent communities is often very
subtle and difficult to identify. Longleaf pine subtypes often contain seeps or
ephemeral wetlands.
Wet flats, particularly loblolly pine subtypes, are widespread in the North
Carolina Coastal Plain. Longleaf pine subtypes are more common south of the
Neuse River, while non-pine subtypes aze more common north of the Neuse
River. Good quality examples of wet pine savannas and subtypes dominated by
oaks have become very uncommon.
VALUES
Because they cover thousands of acres of We Coastal Plain of North Carolina, wet
flats have considerable influence on the hydrology of this region. This wetland
type stores rainfall, allowing it to slowly drain from saturated soil into surface
streams and ground water. In the Outer Coastal Plain, wet flats help to stabilize
the salinity of estuarine systems. Converting wet flats to agriculture or forestry
can change their hydrologic regime, affecting the salinity of nearby estuarine
systems.
Most subtypes of wet flats are common and do not typically provide habitat for
many raze species. The exceptions are wet pine savannas and wet flats dominated
by wetland oaks. More rare plants are associated with the wet pine savanna
subtype than with any other natural community in the state. A few examples are
Cooley's meadowrue, savanna indigo-bush, golden sedge, rough-leaf loosestrife,
and Carolina goldenrod. The high herb diversity provides food for a variety of
rare butterflies and moths, including the amgos skipper, the sundew cutworm
moth and Buchholz's dart moth. Rare birds such as the red-cockaded woodpecker
and the Bachman's sparrow may also be found in pine savannas. The eastern
diamondback rattlesnake, the pygmy rattlesnake and the mimic glass lizazd are
rare reptiles found in savannas. Wet flats dominated by swamp chestnut oak,
laurel oak and cherrybazk oak have become a rare subtype of this wetland type.
Wet flats are valuable for timber production, both in their natural state and as
managed plantations. They provide shelter and food sources for deer, black bear,
fox, raccoon, opossum, gray squirrel and rabbits. Wild turkey and songbirds also
frequent these areas. Because of the abundant wildlife, wet flats aze valuable for
nature study, binding, botanizing and recreational hunting.
~7'

TYPES OF WETLANDS
THREATS
Wet flats are threatened by a variety of human activities. The greatest threat to
wet flats is conversion to agriculture. Many subtypes are becoming uncommon
due to conversion to pine plantations, which may increase evaporation rates and
decrease inundation. Pine plantations aze often managed by planned burning.
While this converts the tree layer from long-leaf pine to loblolly pine, frequent
burning can maintain the characteristic herb layer of wet pine savannas. On the
other hand, suppression of fire has resulted in the increasing rarity of good
examples of wet pine savannas. Suppression of fire allows shrubs to develop
whose shade eliminates the habitat for razer plants (NHP 1993).
SIMII,AR TYPES
• Pocosins are heavily dominated by dense evergreen shrubs with little or no
herb layer.
• Seeps are small areas with evidence of ground water discharge even in
summer.
• Headwater forests are small azeas and often show evidence of surface water
flow.
STTES TO VISTT
When visiting these sites, take precautions to prevent bites by ticks and chiggers.
Be alert for poisonous copperheads. Timber rattlesnakes may be encountered in
large, uninterrupted tracts of forest. The eastern diamondback rattlesnake and the
pigmy rattlesnake may also be encountered.
Examples of exceptional quality are identified by
Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, Dare County. From Manteo, drive
west on U.S. Highway 64/U.S. Highway 264. Follow either road where
they split.
Carolina Beach State Park, New Hanover County. From Cazolina Beach,
drive north on U.S. Highway 421 to State Park. West of 421.
* Croatan National Forest, Millis Road Savanna and Pocosin, Carteret
County. From Morehead City, drive west on U.S. Highway 70 to
Newport. Turn south on Nine Foot Road (SR 1124). West of Nine Foot
Road and south of Millis Road (FS 128).
* Holly Shelter Game Land (southeastern section), Pender County. From
Wihnington, drive north on U.S. Highway 17 to Woodside. Northwest
side of 17.
Sandhills Game Land natural areas, Richmond and Scotland Counties.
From Rockingham, drive north on U.S. Highway 1.
* Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, Gates and Camden Counties.
From Elizabeth City, drive west on U.S. Highway 17/158 into Gates Co.
Both sides of highway.

RAINFALL
Venus fly trap Melissa McCaw, NCWRC
Venus fly traps and pitcher plants, both insectivorous, are examples of rare plants found in
wet pine savannas.

Pitcher plant Melissa McCrea, NCWRC

TYPES OF ~'JETLANDS
POCOSINS
PROFILE
Distribution: Sandhills, Inner and Outer Coastal Plain.
Landscape position: poorly-drained interstream divides and depressions such as
Carolina bays, swales and limesinks. Stream channels are generally absent
although streams may originate on the edges of pocosins. Ditches may be present.
Typical hydrology: seasonally saturated or inundated by a high or perched water
table.
Soils: organic soils or mineral soils with organic surface layers. Short pocosins
have layers of peat several feet deep.
Dominant plants: dominated by broad-leaved evergreen shrubs with scattered pond
pine, although a more substantial tree canopy of pond pine and bay may occur.
Herbs are nearly absent.
Trees: Pond pine, Pinus serotina FACW+
Sweet bay, Magnolia virginiana FACW+
Loblolly bay, Gordonia lasianthus FACW
Red Bay, Persea borbonia FACW
Shrubs: Fetterbush, Lyonia lucida FACW
Ti-ti, Cyrilla racemiJlora FACW
Hollies and gallbemes, Ilex spp. OBL to FAC
Sweet pepperbush, Clethra alnifolia FACW
Blueberry, Vaccinium spp. FAC to FACW
Vines: Laurel-leaf greenbriar, Smilax laurifolia FACW+
Pocosin

r
1
RAINFALL
Pocosins are marked by dense, nearly-impenetrable thickets of shrubs and vines
with pools of water or soggy areas beneath them. The name pocosin comes from an
Algonquin Indian term meaning "swamp on a hill" While some pocosins occur on
slight elevations, many more pocosins are found in interstream divides or shallow
depressions fed by rainwater.
Under natural conditions, pocosins are subject to periodic severe wildfires during
droughts. The broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which dominate pocosins display a
variety of adaptations to these fires. Plants dominating a specific pocosin are
determined by the duration of saturation or inundation and the thickness of the peat
as well as fire frequency and severity
Pocosins may be divided into short pocosins and tall pocosins. Short pocosins occur
in wetter areas with thick peat and low nutrient input and availability. Generally,
they develop where the peat has accumulated to more than three feet deep, often
creating a domed wetland, or over nutrient-poor sands. Lack of nutrients may limit
plant growth in short pocosins and explain why most trees and shrubs are less than
five feet tall. Tall pocosins are relatively richer in nutrients and have vegetation of
normal height. They develop where peat is generally one foot or less deep. Pocosins
dominated by any of the bays-sweet bay, loblolly bay ~ red bay-are often called
"bay forests." Bay forests and other tall pocosins have tree canopies that include
pond pine, a species that is less prevalent in short pocosins.
A rare subtype of pocosin dominated by Atlantic white cedar was once widespread
in the Coastal Plain, but has become rare due to fire suppression and logging.
Pocosins grade into wet flats or non-wetland communities at their edges, but their
dense growW and peaty soils distinguish them from adjacent communities. While
pocosins occupy thousands of acres in North Carolina, their geographic range is
limited to the Coastal Plain from Virginia to Georgia.
VALUES
Pocosins generally provide limited value for special ewlogical attributes, although
further study is needed. North Carolina has more acres of peat-based pocosins than
any other state in the geographic range, so the type cannot be considered rare in this
state. Pocosins tend to have low numbers of rare species; a few such as spoonflower,
cranberry and rough-leaved loosestrife survive on edges with pine savannas and in
openings created by fire.
Pocosins constitute important wildlife habitat because of their extent, excellent
cover and heavy berry crop. Black bear, bobcat and the reintroduced red.wolf
survive in eastern North Carolina because of the extensive territory and isolation
provided by vast pocosins. While these species range through a variety of coastal
communities, they seek refuge in pocosins. Songbirds, such as the pine warbler,
gray fox, deer, small mammals, and a variety of snakes and amphibians also make
use of pocosins. Because of the wildlife populations, pocosins are desirable for
hunting leases. Hunters typically use dogs to flush game from the dense shrub
thickets.
S1

TYPES OF WETLANDS
THREATS
Many pocosins aze threatened by conversion to agriculture or pine plantations. In
most cases, powsins must be drained in order to be used for these activities. There
have been proposals to mine peat from pocosins to produce power, although no
mining operations aze presently taking place. The mined pocosins would be
converted to agricultural use.
SIMII.AR TYPES
• Wet flats are dominated by longleaf or loblolly pine and deciduous shrubs rather
than by pond pine and evergreen shrubs.
• Seeps aze small azeas with evidence of groundwater dischazge even in summer.
Headwater forests aze small areas and often show evidence of surface water flow.
SITES TO VISTT
When visiting these sites, take precautions to prevent bites by ticks and chiggers.
Be alert for poisonous copperheads. Timber rattlesnakes may be encountered in
large, uninterrupted tracts of pocosin.
Examples of exceptional quality are identified by *.
Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, wet flats and pocosins, Daze
County. From Manteo, drive west on U.S. Highway 64/U.S. Highway 264.
Follow either road where they split.
Bladen Lakes State Forest, pocosins in Carolina bays, Bladen County.
From Elizabethtown, drive north on U.S. 701/41/242. Continue straight on
Bladen County 242. Both sides of road in depressions.
* Croatan National Forest, Great Lake and Catfish Lake pocosins, Craven
County. From Morehead City, drive west on U.S. Highway 70 through
Havelock. Turn left on Catfish Lake Road (SR 1100). Follow Forest
Service roads. Encircling Great Lake and West of Catfish Lake.
Croatan National Forest, Millis Road Savanna and Pocosin, Carteret
County. From Morehead City, drive west on U.S. Highway 70 to Newport.
Turn left on Nine Foot Road (SR 1124). West of Nine Foot Road and
south of Millis Road (FS 128).
Holly Shelter Game Land, northeastern section, Pender County. From
Wilmington, drive north on U.S. Highway 17 to Woodside. Northwest
from Highway 17.
i,~

RAINFALL
EPHEMERAL WETLANDS
PROFILE
Distribution: All provinces.
Landscape position: depressions in uplands. Also in depressions in floodplains but
usually not duectly connected to streams.
Typical hydrology: seasonally to semipermanentiy inundated or flooded. The
source varies by location but precipitation is frequently responsible. Overbank
flooding may contribute in floodplains.
Soils: usually not distinguished in soil surveys. These soils occur as small inclu-
sions in hydric and non-hydric soil types.
Dominant plants: vary by location and the depth and dtuation of inundation. Plants
may be few or absent during heaviest flooding and in areas with prolonged
inundation. During drier seasons, a dense herb layer may develop. Trees or shrubs
may be present on the edge or scattered in the center.
Ephemeral wetlands are small, subtle and easy to overlook. During the wet season,
they may be recognized as isolated pools of water, often a foot or more deep. The
water level is lowered through evapotranspiration astemperature rises and plant
growth increases as spring progresses. During summer and fall, they may be
completely dry except after heavy rains, but indications of their hydrology may
remain.
5;
Ephemeral wetlands during winter, Guilford County

TYPES OF WETLANDS
Ephemeral wetlands are typically small in size, usually wvering less than an acre
even during eazly spring. They often occur as inclusions in other wetland types,
particularly bog forests, swamp forests, bottomland hardwood forests and
pocosins. They also occur as inclusions in upland community types.
The cypress savanna subtype is restricted to the southern part of the Inner Coastal
Plain in clay-based Carolina bays. Its plants generally consist of an open canopy
of cypress with swell-developed herb layer. This subtype is very rare in North
Carolina but somewhat more common in South Carolina. The upland depression
swamp forest subtype occurs from the eastern to western Piedmont. In
Mecklenberg County, this wetland subtype develops in mafic depressions
(depressions over a basic clay hardpan) and is chazacterized by ground water with
a pH neaz neutral. Willow and overcup oaks aze characteristic trees in these mafic
depression wetlands.
Although many aze undocumented, undisturbed ephemeral wetlands are thought
to be rare throughout North Carolina. They are particularly rare in the Mountains
VALUE
Because of their hydrologic cycle, ephemeral wetlands are critical breeding sites
for amphibians. In most aquatic habitats, fish prey upon the eggs and aquatic
young of amphibians, but fish aze unable to survive the annual dry-down in many
ephemeral wetlands. As populations of amphibians continue to decline, ephemeral
wetlands offer important breeding and foraging sanctuaries. The raze mole
salamander and four-toed salamander breed in ephemeral pools in floodplains.
Coastal Plain depressions and cypress savannas may host We gopher frog and
tiger salamander.
Ephemeral wetlands in the Piedmont and Mountains are generally not chazacter-
ized by rare plant species. Ephemeral wetlands in the Coastal Plain may contain
many rare plant species, including the West Indies meadow-beauty, awned
meadow beauty, pine barrens smokegrass, coastal beakrush and pondspice.
THREATS
Ephemeral wetlands are an extremely threatened type because of human alter-
ation. Because many are small, they may fail to be identified or protected by
existing laws for wetland protection. Even if they are protected, they provide
limited habitat if surrounding natural communities aze altered.
SIMII.AR TYPES
• Headwater forests experience less flooding and often show evidence of surface
flow.
• Freshwater mazshes aze semi- to permanently inundated with well-established
herb zones.
~~,..

RAINFALL
SITES TO VISIT
When visiting these sites, take precautions to prevent bites by ticks and chiggers.
Examples of exceptional quality are identified by *.
* Hemlock Bluffs Nature Preserve, Cary City Parks and Recreation, Wake
County. From Cary, drive south on Kildaire Farm Road to Preserve.
Adjacent to boardwalk on lower portions of the trail.
Mason Farm Biological Reserve, North Carolina Botanical Garden, Big Oak
Woods, Orange County. From Chapel Hill, drive souW on U.S. 15- 501.
Turn left on Mason Farm Road. Trail along Morgan Creek.
* Morrow Mountain State Park, Montgomery County. From Badin, drive south
on Valley Drive, turn left on Morrow Mountain Road. Ephemeral pool on
right about one mile within park, near the junction of the road to the moun-
tain and the camping area.
* Uwharrie National Forest, Badin Upland Depression Swamps, Montgomery
County. From Troy, drive west on State Route 109. Turn left on Forest Road
576 and follow to Badin Dam. Depressions on hilltop about one-half mile
east of the dam.
5S
Dry ephemeral wetlands during summer, Guilford County

TYPES OF WETLANDS
WETLANDS SUSTAINED BY
GROUND WATER DISCHARGE
Wetlands can develop wherever flowing ground water is discharged at the surface.
Seeps are groundwater-based wetlands which develop at the base of slopes, in
valley bottoms or on hillsides.
FORMATION
Seeps occur where the water table intercepts the land surface, as shown in Figure 8.
In the mountains and isolated locations across the state, this occurs where underly-
ing-rock strata are close to the surface. Mountain seeps also occur where freezing
and thawing have created faults in the rock, allowing discharge of deeper ground
water. In the Piedmont and Sandhills, seeps are more likely to form where lens-
shaped deposits of clay direct ground water to the surface at the base of slopes.
CHARACTERISTICS
The hydrology of most seeps is sustained by the flow of ground water from higher
areas. These wetlands are more consistently saturated than surrounding areas,
although they may experience some drying during droughts. Seeps are best-
developed in areas where the hydrology has become blocked, preventing ground
water from rapidly draining away. When the ground water does leave the seep, it
may combine with surface water runoff to form headwaters -small channels linked
to downstream drainage systems.
Soils in these wetlands are frequently shallow with an underlying layer of rock or
clay. Cooler temperatures and saturated soil allow peat to accumulate in the lower
Mountains and at a few sites in the Piedmont. Underlying granite and silica-
containing rocks makes the ground water acidic in many mountain seeps.
The vegetation of seeps varies with hydroperiod, elevation, and soil acidity.
Sphagnum mats develop in more acidic conditions along with pitcher plants and
other bog vegetation. In the Sandhills, seep vegetation varies with the frequency of
burning as surrounding plant communities burn.
Figure 8. Ground water discharge on hill side
56
These wetlands are fairly numerous but generally small, occupying little overall
acreage. Good quality undisturbed examples of seeps are very rare.

GROUNDWATER
SEEPS
PROFILE
Distribution: Mountains, Piedmont, Sandhills and Inner Coastal Plain.
Landscape position: sloping hillsides or at the base of floodplain slopes where
impervious layers force ground water to the surface.
Typical hydrology: semi-permanently to permanently saturated by ground water
discharge.
Soils: mineral or organic soils. Seeps are often too small to map but may appear as
inclusions in other soil series.
Dominant plants: similar to nearby wetlands, with Mountain sceps resembling bogs
and bog forests and Piedmont seeps resembling bottomland hardwood forests.
Sandhill and Inner Coastal Plain seeps often have a dense shrub layer of fetterbush
and sweet pepperbush and may resemble pocosins. With regulaz burning, these seeps
develop a diverse herb layer.
~;
Seep on a hillside

TYPES OF WETLANDS
Trees: Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
Sweetgum, Liquidambar styraciflua (Piedmont) FAC+
Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Piedmont) FAC-
Willow oak, Quercus phellos (Piedmont) FACW
Pond pine, Pinus serotina (Sandhills, Inner CP) FACW+
Sweet bay, Magnolia virginiana (Sandhills, Inner CP FACW+
Shrubs: Fetterbush, Lyonia lucida (Sandhills, Inner CP) FACW
Sweet pepperbush, Clethra alnifolia
(Sandhills, Inner CP) FACW
Herbs: Cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinnamomea FACW+
Orange jewelweed/touch-me-not,
Impatiens capensis (Piedmont) FACW
Royal fern, Osmunda regalis (Piedmont) OBL
Seeps are small, indistinct areas where ground water dischazge allows wetland
plants to dominate. They may be similaz to nearby wetlands except that their
saturation or inundation may be more frequent or prolonged. Lazger seeps show
plant zonation from herbs at the ground water source to a shrubby or forested
edge.
The high elevation seep subtype occurs only on upper slopes or ridge tops. It
usually does not have well-developed Sphagnum mats.
Seeps may be connected by stream channels to downslope riparian wetlands.
They may grade imperceptibly into headwater forests, bottomland hardwood
forests, pocosins or wet flats. When they occur in upland communities, they
generally show distinct edges.
Seeps aze a fairly common, if not extensive, wetland type in the Mountains,
Piedmont and Sandhills, but aze less common in the Inner Coastal Plain.
VALUE
Mountains seeps may contain species similar to those of bogs, although they are
generally smaller. Seeps in the Piedmont may contain a few rare plant species
such as littleleaf sneezeweed and small-anthered bittercress. Good quality
Sandhill seeps are very rare. Those seeps which experience regular burning or
disturbance may contain many of the same species as wet pine savannas.
Seeps often remain wet during seasons when the surrounding wetlands become
dry, providing important sanctuaries for wetland species such as amphibians.
Piedmont seeps often provide safe aquatic habitat for amphibians to breed. Dusky
salamanders (Desmognathus spp.) and eastern mud salamanders use seeps for
breeding.
THREATS
Because of their small size, seeps aze not prominent features of the landscape.
They may not be identified as wetlands and may be filled or cleared for agricul-
,~

RAINFALL
tural use. Even if they aze protected, they will provide limited habitat if surround-
ing natural communities are altered.
SIMII.AR TYPES
• Headwater forests occur in headwater areas or on upper ridges. Their sources of
water aze rainfall and runoff rather than ground water.
• Mountain bogs and bog forests have well-developed Sphagnum mats.
STTES TO VISTT
Examples of exceptional quality are indentified by *
Duke Forest, Blackwood Division, Orange County. From Durua.~; drive north
on N.C. Highway 751. Turn right on Mount Sinai Road and left on
Rigsbee Road. Trails along New Hope Creek.
* Sandhills Game Land, Still Lane seepage slopes and Bone Fork natural
areas, Richmond and Scotland Counties. From Rockingham, drive north
on U.S. Highway 1. Turn left on Ledbetter Road, then right on Millstone
Road towards McKinney Lake National Fish Hatchery. Road crosses
Bone Fork.
* Uwharrie National Forest, Abner Seepage Bog, Uwharrie National
Forest, Montgomery County. From Troy, drive north on N.C. Highway
109. Turn left on checking Station Road (SR 1153), then right on Forest
Road 576, then left on Forest Road 555. Slopes above Uwharrie River on

TYPt=S OF WETLANDS
WETLANDS SUSTAINED BY
GROUND WATER AND SURFACE WATER
Mountain bogs, bog forests and headwater forests are created by complex hydrol-
ogy which may include both ground water and surface water sources. They occur
in subtle depressions in the bottoms of valleys and along headwater streams.
FORMATION
Mountain bogs, bog forests and headwater forests develop over layers of clay or
shallow rock on ridges and headwater areas. They frequently occur in the bottoms
of U-shaped valleys. In the Mountains, these valleys may have steep sides; in other
provinces the valley shape may be very subtle and there may be no discernible
stream channels. Bog forests and headwater forests also occur in valleys laced with
small headwaters.
CHARACTERISTICS
Mountain bogs, bog forests and headwater forests reflect the complex interaction
of rainfall, surface water, ground water and evapotranspiration. While all of their
inputs are ultimately dependent on rainfall, the form of delivery varies. Overland
surface flow, overbank flooding and channel flow often combine to provide water
for these wetlands. Ground water discharge from seeps or adjacent uplands may be
a factor for some sites during some parts of the year. Water is released from these
wetlands as stream channel flow, surface runoff and possibly as ground water
recharge.
Because of these interactions, the water level in these wetlands fluctuates over
time. Mountain bogs may contain beaver ponds with areas that remain inundated
for long periods. Bog forests may experience only soil saturation in late winter and
spring while headwater forests may experience seasonal inundation.
As these wetlands vary widely in the depth and length of inundation, they also
vary in the types of plants which dominate. Mountain bogs aze saturated or
inundated long enough to limit the establishment of trees. Bog forests and headwa-
ter forests have the least inundation and can support dense stands of shrubs and
trees.
While mountain bogs and bog forests are fairly common in the mountains,
undisturbed examples are rare. These wetland types aze rarely encountered in the
upper Piedmont. Headwater forests are believed to be abundant across the state,
particularly in the Inner and Outer Coastal Plain.
60

GROUND AND SURFACE WATER
MOUNTAIN BOGS
PROFILE
Distribution: Mountains.
Landscape position: flat or gently sloping areas, generally in valley bottoms that aze
not subject to flooding. Predominantly at elevations between 1,200 and 5,000 feet.
Typical hydrology: semi-permanently [o permanently saturated by ground water
discharge and surface runoff. Bogs also receive rainfall, fog and snow.
Soils: organic soils or mucky mineral soils.
Dominant plants: zones of shrubs and herbs underlain with sphagnum. Trees occur
as a sparse canopy or on the borders.
Trees: Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
Shrubs: Tag alder, Alnus serrulata FACW+
Swamp rose, Rosa palustris OBL
Rhododendrons, Rhododendron spp OBL
to FAC
Herbs: Sphagnum moss, Sphagnum sp.
Sedges, Carex spp. OBL
[o FAC
Cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinnamomea FACW+
Royal fern, Osmunda regalis OBL
Sensitive fern, Onoclea sensibilis FACW
Etowah Bog, a mountain bog, located in Henderson County
~~
~ ~~

TYPES OF WETLANDS
From above, mountain bogs appeaz to be a quilt of shrub thickets and herb-
dominated areas stitched onto a green mat of sphagnum. Mountain bogs are
relatively open wet areas underlain with sphagnum moss in hummocks or in the
form of a dome or blanket. These areas are small in size, usually one to five acres.
Local residents refer to all of these wetlands as bogs. Some classification systems
for wetlands discriminate between bogs, fed by ground water, and fens, fed by
surface water. In these systems, bogs aze also characterized by acidic ground
water while fens have neutral ground water. By this criterion, nearly all examples
in North Carolina are bogs due to the acidity of underlying rocks. Bluff Mountain
Preserve in Ashe County contains the only known example of a fen in North
Cazolina.
Mountain bogs vary considerably with wetness, depth of organic matter and
location. Bogs in the northern mountains have disjunct plant species more
characteristic of bogs in the northeastern United States. Bogs in the southern
mountains often contain species typical of the coastal plain, such as pitcher
plants.
Mountain bogs frequently occur in association with bog forests. At their edges,
they often grade into headwater forests or into upland community types.
VALUES
Mountain bogs aze valuable for their special ecological attributes. Undisturbed
examples are rare and contain a concentration of rare plant species. Some more
northerly species are relicts of climatic changes caused by Pleistocene glaciation.
Numerous threatened plant species which require a cooler, wetter climate (such
as northern white beakrush, Canada burnet and bog fern) grow in bogs. Mountain
bogs also support plants native to the southern mountains, such as Gray's lily,
mountain sweet pitcher plant, and bunched arrowhead.
Many bogs in lower valleys have been cleared and are being used for pasture.
While most rare plant species cannot survive grazing, the threatened bog turtle
frequents these "meadow bogs."
Springs and pools in mountain bogs provide aquatic habitat that is isolated from
the predation of fish. They provide important breeding habitat for amphibians,
such as the spotted salamander, mountain dusky salamander and seal salamander
as well as various frogs. The small pools of permanent water and interspersed
patches of plants and water increase the value of this aquatic habitat.
THREATS
Mountain bogs aze threatened by the invasion of shrubs and trees at the expense
of herb development. Flooding by beavers, grazing by large mammals, clearing
by Native Americans or burning may have kept these areas open in the past.
Today heavy grazing, ground water pumping, or increased nutrient input may
favor growth of woody plants. Open areas tend to be more diverse than areas
dominated by shrubs, so the overall species diversity is decreasing.
62

GROUND AND SURFACE WATER
Mountain bogs are threatened by conversion to agricultural, forestry or urban uses.
Even low-impact activities such as tourism may damage bogs, since their sphagnum
mats are extremely sensitive to damage by foot traffic.
Mountain bogs are also threatened by the removal of upslope forests. This can
change the volume and chemistry of ground water discharge and surface runoff.
SIMILAR TYPES
• Bog forests consist primarily of forested thickets with small bog openings.
• Seeps contain well-developed tree and shrub layers and are less dominated by
sphagnum. They generally occur on slopes.
STIES TO VISTI
Examples of exceptional quality are identified by
Blue Ridge Parkway, Flat Laurel Gap Bog, Haywood County. North side of
parkway at Flat Laurel Gap, milepost 409,
Julian Price Recreational Area, Boone Fork, Sims Branch, Cold Prong Bogs,
Watauga County. Blue Ridge Parkway milepost 296. Boone Fork Trail
from picnic area on north side of parkway. South side of parkway across
from picnic area. Upstream of Price Lake on south side of parkway.
* Nantahala National Forest, Nantahala River Wetlands, Macon County. From
Franklin, drive west on U.S. Highway 64. Turn south on USFS 67.
Between 67 and the Nantahala River immediately upstream and down-
stream of Standing Indian Campground and in Whiteoak Bottoms.
* Pisgah National Forest, Pink Bed Bogs, Transylvania County. From Brevard,
drive north on U.S. 276 past the Cradle of Forestry in America. Turn east
on USFS 1206. East and south of 1206.
63
Sphagnum moss Ken Taylor, NCWRC

TYPES OF WETLA~J(~S
BOG FORESTS
PROFILE
Distribution: Mountains.
Landscape position: poorly drained bottomlands, generally with irregular
topography of small ridges and depressions crossed by small headwater streams
Typical hydrology: seasonally to permanently saturated by ground water dis-
charge and surface water runoff. This type also receives rainfall, fog and snow.
Soils: mineral soils deposited by streams.
Dominant plants: forested thickets with small boggy openings in depressions.
Sites are generally dominated by red maple or Eastern hemlock with a shrub
layer of rhododendron, mountain laurel and dog hobble.
Trees: Eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis FACU
Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
White pine, Pinus strobus FACU
Black willow, Saliz nigra OBL
Shrubs: Rhododendron, Rhododendron spp. OBL
to FACU
Tag alder, Alnus serrulata FACW+
Silky dogwood, Cornus amomum FACW+
Herbs: Sphagnum moss, Sphagnum spp.
Cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinnamomea FACW+
Royal fern, Osmunda regalis OBL
Sensitive fem, Onoclea sensibilis FACW
Pineola Bog in Avery County is an example of a bog forest. ~ T•r~~ xcwec

GROUND AND SURFACE WATER
Bog forests resemble overgrown bogs, with thickets of trees and shrubs inter-
spersed with patches of sphagnum moss. However, bog forests usually occur in
mountain bottomlands interlaced with small headwater streams. They are sustained
by flooding from the streams as well as by ground water discharge, surface runoff
and precipitation.
Elevation and hydrology determine which species will dominate a particular bog
forest. In higher elevations, which are somewhat drier, bog forests are dominated
by eastern hemlock. A rare subtype found at even higher elevations is dominated
by red spruce, Picea rubens. Bog forests in lower elevations along relatively
wetter valleys are dominated by red maple. Elevation and hydrology also deter-
mine the relative amounts of closed forest, shrub thicket and bog.
Bog forests are often associated with mountain bogs, which occur where drainage
. is blocked and streams are absent. In other circumstances, bog forests grade into
upland communities.
Numerous examples of bog forests are scattered throughout the mountains,
although they occupy little total acreage.
. VALUES
Because of their position in the watershed and plant cover, bog forests are valuable
. for storing water. They also stabilize shorelines along small headwater streams,
preventing erosion of the streambanks and siltation of the streams. This value is
. due to their landscape position and their woody thickets of trees and shrubs. These
characteristics also make it possible for them to retain sediments carrying phos-
. phorus and to remove nitrogen as the water level fluctuates. Thus they are also
valuable for pollutant removal.
Bog forests do not usually support as many rare plant species as mountain bogs,
' but some bog species may be found in openings. Canada yew, pitcher plants and
bog turtles are a few of the species found in this wetland type. Undisturbed
r examples of bog forests are rare.
Bog forests provide aquatic habitat for adults and larvae of salamanders and frogs.
The wood frog and green frog, the three-lined salamander and several species of
dusky salamander (Desmognathus spp.) may be found in pools and along
streambanks in these wetlands.
THREATS
Many bog forests at lower elevations have been altered by draining, damming or
clearing for pastures. Sphagnum mats in bog forests are also susceptible to damage
from foot traffic.
SIMILAR TYPES
• Headwater forests have little sphagnum moss.
• Mountain bogs consist primarily of openings with scattered trees and shrub

TYPES OF WETLANDS
thickets.
• Seeps are less dominated by sphagnum moss and usually occur on slopes.
SITES TO VISIT
Examples of exceptional quality are identified by *.
* Nantahala National Forest, Nantahala River Wetlands, Macon County.
From Franklin, drive west on U.S. Highway 64. Turn south on USFS 67.
Between 67 and the Nantahala River immediately upstream and down-
stream of Standing Indian Campground and in Whiteoak Bottoms.
'~ Pisgah National Forest, Pink Bed Bogs, Transylvania County. From
Brevard, drive north on U.S. 276 past the Cradle of Forestry in America.
Turn east on USFS 1206. East and south of 1206.

GROUND AND SURFACE WATER
HEADWATER FORESTS
PROFILE
Distribution: All provinces.
Landscape position: linear depressions in headwater areas and on upper ridges of
Coastal Plain swamps.
Typical hydrology: irregularly inundated or flooded by surface runoff. At some
sites, ground water discharge also contributes.
Soils: a variety of mineral soils, generally with underlying layers of clay or shallow
rock.
Dominant plants: swell-developed tree layer with diverse shrub and herb layers.
Trees: Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
Sweetgum, Liquidambar styraciflua FAC+
Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica FACW
Willow oak, Quercus phellos FACW-
Loblolly pine, Pinus taeda FAC
American elm, Ulmus americans FACW
Sycamore, Platanus occidentalis FACW-
Tuliptree, Liriodendron tulipifera (Pied.) FAC
Black gum, Nyssa sylvatica (Pied. & C.P.) FAC
Headwater forests are highly diverse wetlands that develop in the upper parts of
drainage basins where streams first begin to form. Here rainfall and surface flow
are sufficient to support wetland vegetation but surface runoff may not form
Headwater forest
67 .

TYPES OF WETLANDS
distinct stream channels. Headwater forests are generally found in small linear
depressions of varying widths. Because of the small watershed, inundation and
flooding of the depressions will be highly variable in frequency and volume.
Plant communities in these forests vary widely with hydrology and human
alteration as well with physiographic province. Headwater forests often resemble
the communities of bottomland hardwood forests, with rich and diverse tree,
shrub and herb layers. However, the zonation present in bottomland hardwood
forests is greatly reduced. Small headwater streams cannot create the variety of
landforms present along major rivers. Coastal Plain headwater forests may
resemble small swamps or pocosins with streams emerging from them.
Headwater forests frequently include seeps. Strings of headwater forests may be
connected by stream channels or they may grade imperceptibly into bottomland
hardwood forests or swamps. In the Coastal Plain, headwater forests may grade
into pocosins or wet flats upslope. When they are surrounded by upland commu-
nities, their borders are often indistinct.
Headwater forests are abundant throughout the state but are most wmmon in the
Coastal Plain.
VALUES
Headwater forests are valuable for pollutant removal. Due to their position in the
upper reaches of watersheds, their dense vegetation and their fluctuating hydrol-
ogy, these forests can retain sediments and transform nutrients before they are
carried into larger bodies of water.
Like bottomland hardwood forests, headwater forests can provide valuable
wildlife habitat. Their vaned plants provide good cover and fruit- and nut-bearing
plants for songbirds and mammals such as gray squirrels, rabbits, raccoons,
opossums and deer. In some headwater forests, small streams and pools are
valuable for the adults and larvae of amphibians. However, many of these
wetlands are too dry to provide substantial aquatic habitat.
Headwater forests are also valuable for timber production. Stands with mature
loblolly pine, tuliptree or black gum have high market value and many have been
logged in the past. The fertile soil and moderate wetness of headwater forests
make them valuable for future timber production as well.
Rare or endangered species are not generally characteristic of this type. The type
itself is common in North Carolina.
THREATS
Many headwater forests have been impounded or drained and converted to
pastures, agriculture or urban development.
~x

GROUND AND SURFACE WATER
SIMILAR TYPES
• Bottomland hardwood forests have similar tree species but occur along major
floodplains. Their source of water is primarily overbank flooding from the
river.
• Seeps are fed by groundwater only and are saturated or inundated for longer
periods.
SITES TO VISIT
Bladen Lakes State Forest, Turnbull Creek Swamp, Bladen County.
From Elizabethtown, drive north on U.S. 701/41/242. Continue straight
on Bladen County 242. Bear left to Bladen County 5. Road runs parallel j
to Turnbull Creek, with USFS roads extending towards creek.
Croatan National Forest, Holston Creek, Carteret County. From Morehead
City, drive west on U.S. 70, then bear left on N.C. 70 towards Swansboro.
Turn north on County 58, then east on USFS 126 (Great Lake Road),
then north on USFS 134 (Holsten Hunter Road). The road crosses Holden
Creek.
Sandhills Game Land natural areas, Richmond and Scotland Counties.
From Rockingham, drive north on U.S. Highway 1. Both sides of highway.
69 ,

TYPES OF WETLANDS
WETLANDS ON RIVERS AND LAKES
Wetlands form complex systems in floodplains and at the mouths of many of the
larger streams and rivers of North Carolina. Similar wetlands also occur on the
edge of impoundments and natural lakes. The major types of wetlands in these
areas are bottomland hardwood forests, swamp forests and freshwater marshes.
FORMATION
Larger streams are dynamic systems that continually alter their floodplains. While
wetlands occur along streams in all provinces, floodplain swctures are best
illustrated by the rivers of the lower Piedmont and the Inner and Outer Coastal
Plain. In these provinces, streams flooding over their banks deposit coarse
materials first, creating natural levees along the stream banks. As time passes, the
streams migrate laterally over the broad flat floodplains, leaving depressions and
oxbows in their abandoned channels. Sometimes, the streams excavate deeper
channels and floodplains, leaving sewnd terraces which are flooded infrequently.
As shown in Figure 9, bot[omland hardwood forests and swamp forests may
develop in various locations along these streams. At the mouth of larger rivers,
water spreads and drops its load of sediment, creating broad deltas. Along many
rivers, these are occupied by vast swamp forests or freshwater marshes. Along
some rivers, like the Roanoke, deep peat has developed in these deltas, blocking
drainage and allowing plant communities similar to pocosins to develop.
Swamp forests and freshwater marshes are also wmmon along the edges of
impoundments and in beaver ponds. Permanent impoundments include natural
Bottomland
Hardwood
.Oxbow Lake
^-
~,.~~,
Figure 9. Floodplain formations and wetlands
711

a
RIVERS AND LAKES
lakes, ponds in deep depressions and artificial reservoirs. Natural lakes are fairly
numerous in Cazolina bays in the Inner and Outer Coastal Plain. They are
virtually absent elsewhere in the state, but many Piedmont rivers and some
Mountain rivers have been impounded for recreation or water supply reservoirs.
Swamp forests and freshwater marshes may develop behind beaver dams or along
the shorelines and upper ends of farm ponds. They also develop in sounds at the
mouths of rivers where there is sufficient freshwater inflow and distance to
saltwater inlets. Freshwater marshes occasionally develop where lenses of clay
allow water to collect in interdune depressions along the coast.
CHARACTERISTICS
Bottomland hardwood forests and swamp forests aze characterized by seasonal
and yearly changes in flooding patterns. Overbank flooding and surface and
ground water flow parallel to the stream are probably the primazy sources of
water. Surface and ground water also enters these wetlands from surrounding
uplands. The actual flooding depends on the land use characteristics of the
watershed and the degree of stream channelization. Freshwater marshes may also
receive water from a variety of sources, including surface runoff and ground
water flow as well as inundation by adjacent streams, lakes or reservoirs. Wet-
lands in sounds at the mouths of rivers may also receive wind or lunaz tides and
storm surges from hurricanes. Water leaves these systems by surface runoff and
evapotranspiration, with some possible loss through ground water rechazge.
Depth and duration of flooding determines whether an area will be bottomland
hardwood forest, swamp forest or freshwater marsh. Freshwater marshes gener-
ally occur in azeas that are inundated more continuously than areas with bottom-
land hazdwood forests or swamp forests. Complex patterns of higher and lower
ground in the floodplain mean that these wetlands do not generally occur in
predictable strips along the river. However, Figure 9 suggests some locations
where bottomland hazdwood forests and swamp forests may be found. Natural
levees often extend along the bank of larger streams. Because they usually lack
hydric soils, this guide does not consider levees as wetlands. The area in back of
the levee may be bottomland hardwood forest or, in parts of the Coastal Plain,
extensive backswamps. Depressions and oxbows may support either swamp
forests or deepwater habitats. Shallower depressions in floodplains may contain
ephemeral wetlands sustained by both rainfall, surface flow and overbank
flooding. Beaver ponds on medium to large streams often contain swamp forests
in their early years; the ponds may become freshwater marshes as the inundated
trees die and fall after several years.
Bottomland hardwood forests and swamp forests aze more extensive and highly
developed along the lower portions of streams where sediments are being
deposited. Coastal Plain streams may be divided into brownwater streams and
blackwater streams based on their place of origin and the types of sediments they
carry. Brownwater streams originate in the Piedmont or Mountains and carry
greater loads of nutrient-rich sediments. Blackwater streams originate in the
Coastal Plain. The black color of the water is due to the presence of tannins and
71~

TYPES OF WETLANDS
other organics derived from plant litter. These streams carry less sediment and
dissolved nutrients but more organic detritus.
Swamp forests and freshwater marshes are also found along the shorelines of
natural lakes and reservoirs. In these locations, their flooding patterns are dictated
by water levels in the lake or reservoir. Their soils may vary from mineral sand to
organic muck, depending on how the lake was formed and the pattern of inunda-
tion.
The vegetation of bottomland hazdwood forests, swamp forests and freshwater
mazshes varies greatly according to flooding characteristics. Cypress and willow
oak are most tolerant of flooding, although both require exposed soil for seeds to
sprout. Cypress is primarily restricted to the Coastal Plain and eastern Piedmont.
Willow oak occurs throughout the Coastal Plain and Piedmont. Water tupelo
(Nyssa aquatica) is restricted to the Coastal Plain, whereas the swamp tupelo
(Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora) ranges inland to the eastern Piedmont. Freshwater
mazshes can often support vegetation which is more typically aquatic, including
water lilies, bladderworts and duckweed.
Bottomland hazdwood forests are common in the Coastal Plain and lower to mid-
Piedmont and rare in the upper Piedmont and Mountains. Swamp forests are
common in the Coastal Plain but rare in We Piedmont; they are essentially absent
in the Mountains. Freshwater marshes are fairly common in beaver ponds, along
reservoirs and in some stream bottoms throughout the state. Freshwater marshes
in natural lakes are raze because natural lakes are rare and mostly restricted to the
Inner and. Outer Coastal Plain. There are large areas of freshwater marsh in the
Outer Coastal Plain at the mouths of rivers and in freshwater sounds like
Currituck.
72
Keo Tayla, NCWRC
Aerial view encompassing bottomland hardwoods, swamp forest and riverine wetlands.

RIVERS AND LAKES
BOTTOMLAND HARDWOOD FORESTS
PROFILE
Distribution: All provinces.
Landscape position: along medium to large streams and rivers. In the Piedmont,
these forests are often found where tributary streams join or the stream gradient
changes.
Typical hydrology: irregularly to seasonally flooded. Overbank flooding and
surface and ground water flow perpendicular to the stream channel are likely
sources.
Soils: predominantly mineral although mucky soils may occur in the Coastal
Plain.
Dominant plants: a sparse (in disturbed sites) to closed tree canopy with well-
developed shrub and vine layers. Dominant plants vary with the type of sediments
and subtle changes in elevation as well as the frequency and duration of flooding.
Mountains
Trees: Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
River birch, Betula nigra FACW
Sycamore, Platanus occidentalis FACW-
Eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis FACU
Shrubs: Tag alder, Alnus serrulata FACW+
Rhododendrons, Rhododendron spp. OBL to FACU

Bottomland hardwood forest

TYPES OF WETLANDS
Herbs: Royal fern, Osmunda regalis OBL
Orange jewelweed/touch-me-not,
Impatiens capensis FACW
Piedmont, Sandhills and Coastal Plain
Trees: Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
Green ash, Frazinus pennsylvanica FACW
American elm, Ulmus americans FACW
Sweetgum, Liquidambar sryraciflua FAC
River birch, Betula nigra FACW
Ironwood, Carpinus caroliniana FAC
Swamp chestnut oak, Quercus michauxii FACW-
Willow oak, Quercus phellos FACW-
Water oak, Quercus nigra FAC
Sycamore, Platanus occidentalis FACW-
Shrubs/Vines: Poison ivy, Toxicodendron radicans FAC
Greenbrier, Smilax spp. FACW+
to FACU
Buckeye, Aesculus sylvatica (Piedmont) FAC
Coastal dog hobble, Leucothoe axillaris
(Coastal Plain) FACW
Swamp dog hobble, Leucothoe racemosa FACW
Virginia willow, Itea virginica
(Coastal Plain, eastern Piedmont) FACW+
Sweet pepperbush, Clethra alnifolia
(Coastal Plain, eastern Piedmont) FACW
Ti-Ti, Cyrilla racemiflora
(Coastal Plain) FACW
Herbs: Lizard's tail, Saururus cernuus OBL
Cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinnamomea FACW+
Royal fern, Osmunda regalis OBL
Cane, Arundinaria gigantea FACW
Orange jewelweed/touch-me-not,
Impatiens capensis FACW
Virginia chainfern, Woodwardia
virginica (Coastal Plain) OBL
Sensitive fem, Onoclea sensibilis FACW
Netted chainfern, Woodwardia areolala OBL
Bottomland hardwood forests are highly diverse wetlands, but they share a com-
mon characteristic: they develop along the floodplains of medium [o large streams.
In the Coastal Plain, bottomland hardwood forests and other wetlands cover almost
the entire floodplain. Only natural levees, which often do not have hydric soils,
contain non-wetland plant communities. In floodplains of the Piedmont and
Mountains, wetlands occur in a matrix of other community types.
Dominant plants vary from west to east across the state. Mountain bottomland
hardwood forests often contain hemlock in addition to bottomland hardwood

i
TYPES OF WETLANDS
species. Piedmont sites tend to be dominated by hardwoods but may include
dense thickets of cane. Coastal plain sites have the common Piedmont species as
well as trees and shrubs more native to the Coastal Plain.
Bottomland hazdwood forests in the Coastal Plain may be divided into the
blackwater subtype and the brownwater subtype, according to the type of river.
In general, the brownwater subtype has more diverse plant and animal communi-
ties due to its higher nutrient content. Brownwater rivers originate in the
Piedmont and carry greater loads of nutrient-rich sediment.
At their edges, bottomland hardwood forests grade into swamp forests, freshwa-
ter marshes and various upland communities. They may include ephemeral
wetlands or seeps.
VALUES
Bottomland hardwood forests are valuable for water storage, shoreline stabiliza-
tion and pollutant removal. Their position along streams and their dense stands
of woody plants make them able to slow and retain floodwaters. These same
chazacteristics allow them to stabilize streambanks, reducing erosion and the
sedimentation of rivers and lakes downstream. As floodwaters spread out and
pass through sieves of woody plants, sediments carrying phosphorus, heavy
metals and other pollutants drop out. Bottomland hardwood forests aze also
valuable in removing nitrogen through their fluctuating hydrology. As the water
level fluctuates, bacteria in bottom sediments convert nitrogen to its gaseous
form, allowing it to escape into the atmosphere. Removing phosphorus and
nitrogen helps to prevent algal blooms in lakes, reservoirs and sounds down-
stream.
Bottomland hazdwood forests are also extremely valuable as habitat. Their
varied plants provide cover and food for songbirds, gray squirrels, rabbits, deer
and wild turkey. Mink, otter, and beaver make their homes along the streams.
Raccoons and opossums are typical foragers but black bear may be encountered
in lazger tracts in the eastern portion of the state. The ready access to water
makes these forests valuable for amphibians such astwo-lined, three-lined,
marbled and southern dusky salamanders. Spotted turtles, snapping turtles, water
snakes and ribbon snakes may also be encountered. Even narrow bottomland
hardwood forests may function as corridors for wildlife movement between
larger natural areas.
The diversity of wildlife and access to water make bottomland hardwood forests
popular for recreation and education. They aze also popular for hunting leases.
THItEATS
Because of their fertile soil and moderate wetness, most bottomland hardwood
forests have been logged in the past. These forests continue to be logged as trees
reach marketable size, demonstrating their value for timber production.
75

RIVERS AND LAKES
Many bottomland hardwood forests have been impounded or drained and con-
verted to pasture, agriculture or urban development.
SIMII,AR TYPES
• Headwater forests occur in headwater areas or on very small streams or
on upper ridges of Coastal Plain swamps.
• Wet flats occur on interstream divides where stream channels are usually
absent.
STTES TO VISTT
When visiting these sites, take precautions to prevent bites by ticks and chiggers.
Be alert for poisonous copperheads. Cottonmouths may be encountered in the
lower Piedmont and Coastal Plain and timber rattlesnakes may occupy large
forested tracts.
Examples of exceptional quality are identified by
B. Everett Jordan Lake, New Hope Creek Bottomlands. From Durham, drive
south on N.C. 751, turn right on Stagecoach Road. Walk south on
abandoned railroad right-of-way. .
Lake Waccamaw State Park, Waccamaw River. From Wilmington, drive west
on U.S. 74/76. Turn south on Old Lake Road to town of Lake Waccamaw,
turn east on N.C. 214, turn south on SR 1757, turn left on SR 1947 (Bella
Coola Road).
* Pee Dee National Wildlife Refuge, Brown Creek floodplain, Anson County.
From Wadesboro, drive north on U.S. Highway 52. Turn right on Grassy
Island Road (SR 1627) then turn right on Pinkston River Road (SR 1634).
* Roanoke River National Wildlife Refuge, Bertie Counties. From
Williamston, drive north on U.S. 17/13. Both sides of the river for 20
miles.
7 fi..

RIVERS AND LAKES
SWAMP FORESTS
PROFILE
Distribution: Most numerous and extensive in the Inner and Outer Coastal Plain,
also in the Piedmont.
Landscape position: along rivers in backswamps, sloughs and oxbows and along
blackwater streams. Also along shorelines of freshwater lakes and reservoirs and in
beaver ponds.
Typical hydrology: seasonally to semi-permanently flooded to depths of up to
several feet. Overbank flooding and surface and ground water flow perpendicular to
the stream channel are likely sources.
Soils: organic or fine-textured mineral soil. Deposits of sandy sediments are
characteristic along blackwater streams.
Dominant plants: swell-developed tree layer with little or no shrub and herb layers.
Trees: Bald cypress, Taxodium distichium (Coastal Plain) OBL
Water tupelo, Nyssa aquatics (Coastal Plain) OBL
Swamp tupelo, Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora OBL
Willow oak, Quercus phellos (Piedmont) FACW-
Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
Swamp forests are one of the most familiar types of wetlands. Majestic cypress
trees with knees, standing water for long periods of time and poorly developed
shrub or herb layers are obvious indicators of this type. Swamp forests develop
along large rivers and lakes where overbank flooding and surface and ground water
flow combine to create frequent and extended flooding. These conditions shape
swamp forests and select for plants and animals with high tolerance to water stress.

Swamp forest along the Roanoke River, Bertie County Nt~

TYPES OF WETLANDS
The plant species in swamp forests vary across the state. Bald cypress has a very
high tolerance to flooding and shares dominance with tupelos in swamp forests east
of the fall line. In wetlands experiencing the greatest flooding, bald cypress may be
the only tree. In Piedmont and Mountain swamp forests, willow oak, swamp tupelo
and red maple are more typical. In the Piedmont, willow oaks may indicate sites
with greater or more prolonged flooding.
Plant communities in swamp forests vary in other ways. In the Coastal Plain, bald
cypress and water tupelo dominate along brownwater rivers while bald cypress and
swamp tupelo dominate in poorer soils along blackwater rivers. Bald cypress
depends on dry conditions for seed germination, so continuous inundation will
eventually lead to loss of the tree layer as older trees die. Dominance by pines
anywhere may, indicate draining or an extended dry period. Previous logging may
have selectively removed Atlantic white cedar, swamp tupelo or cypress.
Swamp forests grade into bottomland hardwood forests, pocosins and freshwater
marshes at their borders. This type is widespread in the Coastal Plain, unwmmon in
the lower Piedmont and rare in the upper Piedmont and in the Mountains.
VALUES
Because of their position along sinuous streams and their depressional characteris-
tics, swamp forests are valuable for water storage. As river waters spread over
swamp forests, the water is slowed and sediments carrying phosphorus and other
pollutants drop out. Swamp forests are also valuable in removing nitrogen through
their fluctuating hydrology. Removing phosphorus and nitrogen helps to prevent
algal blooms in lakes, reservoirs and sounds downstream of swamps.
Swamp forests generally do not support many rare species. Anhingas may nest near
remote ponds and the American alligator may be present within 50 miles of the
coast. The southern twayblade orchid may also be observed. However, some swamp
forests harbor ancient trees that are valuable because of their extreme age. Swamp
forests along the Black River in southeastern North Carolina are known to contain
1,600-year-old cypress trees. These represent the oldest living organisms on record
in North Carolina. These trees have survived because of their inaccessibility and
their unsuitability for timber, since many of them are hollow.
The presence of mature trees and snags, food sources such as gum seeds and access
to water make swamp forests important for wildlife habitat. Black bear is fairly
common in large swamp forests. Beaver, muskrat, otter and mink make their homes
along the rivers and shorelines. Hawks, owls, and woodpeckers are full-time resi-
dents while songbirds and waterfowl visit for parts of We year. Hollow snags (dead
trees) in standing water are critical for wood duck nesting. Deer, raccoon, opossum,
and other mammals may be found. Mud "chimneys" indicate the burrows of semi-
terrestrial crayfish.
Water snakes and the eastern ribbon snake may be sighted in swamp forests Wrough-
out the state, but cottonmouths are most common in the Coastal Plain. Swamp forests
~x .

RIVERS AND LAKES
are also occupied by the spotted turtle and snapping turtle.
Swamp forests also offer important aquatic habitat. They may offer any of We
three types of habitat: semi-permanent water with plenty of detritus, spring-
flooded wetlands or fish-free waters for amphibians. Forage minnows may be
permanent residents if there is sufficient water, while larger fish may visit for
spawning and feeding during flood stages. Infrequently flooded sites are important
for breeding and larval stages of amphibians such as marbled, three-lined, dusky
and eastern mud salamanders as well as numerous frog species.
Because of the variety and richness of habitats, swamp forests are also valuable for
recreation and education, especially if amenities are provided. Swamp forests are
popular for recreational hunting of wood duck, deer, black bear, and raccoon.
Canoeing and nature study are also options. Hunting leases in swamp forests are
also in demand.
Swamp forests are valuable for timber production because of their stands of
mature specialty woods. Valuable species such as Atlantic white cedar, bald
cypress, green ash and oaks yield premium timber.
SIMILAR TYPES
• Bottomland hardwood forests have a diverse tree canopy with well-developed
shrub and vine layers. They are subject to less frequent and less prolonged
flooding.

Mud 'chimney' made by crayfish

TYPES OF WETLANDS
• Wet flats include the non-riverine swamp forest subtype, which is primarily
sustained by rainfall. It is somewhat drier and more shrubby than typical riverine
swamp forests.
• Ephemeral wetlands are generally inundated to two feet or less and for only the
winter season. They generally support awell-developed herb layer.
SITES TO VISTT
When visiting these sites, be alert for poisonous cottonmouths. Timber rattlesnakes
could be encountered on large tracts.
Examples of exceptional quality are indicated by *.
* Black River swamp forest, Pender, Bladen and Sampson Counties. From
Wihnington, drive north on N.C. 53/11. Turn right on Ranking Street.
Public boat landings and bridge crossings at N.C. Highways 53/11 and
210 and SR 1201/1550.
B. Everett Jordan Lake, New Hope Creek Bottomlands. From Durham, drive
south on N.C. 751, turn right on Stagecoach Road. Walk south on
abandoned railroad right-of-way.
* Merchants Millpond State Park, Lassiter Swamp, Gates County. From
Murphreesboro, drive east on U.S. 158. Turn south on SR 1403 and into
park. Rental canoes in park. Canoe trail or land trails to upper end of
pond.
Pee Dee National Wildlife Refuge, Brown Creek, Anson County. From
Wadesboro, drive north on U.S. Highway 52. Turn right on Grassy Island
Road (SR 1627) then turn right on Pinkston River Road (SR 1634).
* Pettigrew State Park and Lake Phelps, Washington County. U.S. Highway
64 at Creswell on SR 1155 and from Cherry Point on SR 1164.
Roanoke River National Wildlife Refuge, Great and Goodman Islands, Bertie
County. From Plymouth, drive east on U.S. 64. Turn north on 308/45/3.

RIVERS AND LAKES
FRESHWATER MARSHES
PROFILE
Distribution: All provinces.
Landscape position: deep depressions and natural lakes in the Coastal Plain or in
reservoirs or beaver ponds throughout the state. Freshwater marshes also develop
in sounds at the mouths of large rivers and in some stream bottoms.
Typical hydrology: semi-permanently to permanently inundated or flooded. The
source may be stream flow, surface water runoff or ground water discharge or a
combination of sources. In the Coastal Plain, many marshes are crossed by
mosquito ditches.
Soils: generally not mapped, but often sands, silts and clays deposited by streams
or lakes.
Dominant plants: vary with zones of emergents, submergents and floating plants.
Shrubs may occur around the edges or growing on old tree stumps in artificial
impoundments.
Trees: Black willow, Salix nigra OBL
Shrubs: Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occiderttalis OBL
Tag alder, Alnus serrulata FACW+
Swamp Rose, Rosa palustris OBL
Wax myrtle, Myrica cerifera
(Coastal Plain) FAC+
Swamp rose mallow, Hibiscus moscheutos OBL
Freshwater marsh

TYPES OF WETLANDS
Emergents: Cattail, Typha spp. OBL
Rush, Juncus spp. OBL to FACW
Bulrush, Scirpus spp. OBL
Spikerush, Eleocharis spp. OBL to FACW
Sedges, Carex spp. OBL to FACW
Arrow-arum, Peltandra virginica OBL
Pickerelweed, Pontederia cordata OBL
Arrowhead, Sagittaria spp. OBL
Blue flag, Iris virginica OBL
Floating plants: Water lily, Nymphaea odorata OBL
Duckweed, Lemma spp. OBL
Bladderwort, Utricularia spp. OBL
Dense stands of wetland plants, such as cattails, interspersed with open water make
freshwater marshes easy for most people to identify. These wetlands develop where
standing water is generally present throughout the yeaz so that trees cannot become
established. In the Coastal Plain, freshwater marshes develop along the shorelines
of natural lakes, in deep depressions and at the mouths of large rivers. Since natural
lakes occur only in the Coastal Plain in North Carolina, most inland freshwater
marshes develop where streams enter Piedmont reservoirs. Freshwater marshes also
develop behind beaver dams or along the shorelines and upper ends of farm ponds.
Many freshwater mazshes exhibit complex zonation. A shoreline with gradual slope
supports the development of swell-developed emergent zone. If the water is
sufficiently clear, a diverse submergen[ community may form. Soft substrate and
moderate depth allow the development of floating plants. If the water is temporarily
or permanently removed, a tree overstory may develop and form a swamp forest.
Tidal freshwater marshes are a common subtype in areas of sounds which aze distant'
from ocean inlets. The northern part of Currituck Sound near the Virginia border
contains wetlands which are affected by tidal variations, but which are not saline
enough to be considered brackish.
Freshwater marshes grade into a variety of wetland and upland communities as well
as deepwater habitats. In the Mountains, they are intermixed with mountain bogs anc
bog forests. In the Piedmont, freshwater marshes grade into bottomland hardwood
forests or non-wetland communities at their upper borders, and into deepwater
habitats at their lower borders. In the Inner Coastal Plain and Sandhills, they may
grade into pocosins or wet flats as you move upland from bays or natural lakes.
Freshwater marshes are often associated with brackish marshes and swamp forests in
the Outer Coastal Plain.
Freshwater marshes are fairly rare in the Mountains and more common in the
Piedmont, Sandhills and Coastal Plain.
R2

i
i
RIVERS AND LAKES
VALUES
Freshwater marshes are valuable for storing water and for protecting water quality.
With their dense stands of emergent plants and shrubs, freshwater marshes
stabilize shorelines along natural lakes and reservoirs, preventing bank erosion and
siltation of the bottom. Their plants also act to retain sediments washed in from
streams and uplands, reducing pollution by phosphorus. As the water level
fluctuates, bacteria in the bottom sediments and plants of freshwater marshes act
to remove nitrogen. Limiting inputs of phosphorus and nitrogen helps to prevent
algal blooms in lakes, reservoirs and sounds.
Because of the scarcity of natural lakes, freshwater marshes associated with
natural lakes are fairly rare in North Carolina. Rare plants such as beaked
spikerush, smooth sawgrass, and ribbed bishopweed have been identified in these
freshwater marshes. Within 50 miles of the coast, the American alligator may be
observed in freshwater marshes. However, this wetland type is not generally noted
for its rare species.
These wetlands provide a variety of valuable habitat for wildlife because of their
mosaic of plants and water, good cover and food. Freshwater marshes offer homes
for muskrats, mink, herons, egrets, bitterns, rails, mallards and other waterfowl.
Many small freshwater marshes develop where beavers have dammed streams and
felled or girdled trees. Snapping turtles and several species of water snakes are
common. Along the edge of the marsh, the viceroy butterfly lays its eggs on
willows; its caterpillar devours the willow leaves and pupates on these trees. Red-
winged blackbirds, northern harriers and kingfishers are frequently seen over
marshes. Raccoon, fox, and deer may visit the marsh to feed or drink.
Freshwater marshes also provide aquatic habitat for many species. Crayfish and
many aquatic larvae such as those of midges, mosquitoes and craneflies may be
observed. Bullfrogs, leopard frogs and three-lined salamanders depend on marshes
for reproduction. Freshwater marshes which are deep enough and connected to
permanent water provide habitat for a variety of stocked and native fish such as
bream, sunfish, bass, eels, catfish or minnows. Because of their diversity of
wildlife and access to water, freshwater marshes are popular for recreation.
Freshwater marshes provide some of the most desirable azeas for hunting because
of the prevalence of waterfowl habitat. Hunters may be willing to pay more for
hunting leases in choice waterfowl habitat than for other types of hunting. Fresh-
water mazshes are extremely popular for hunting in areas where adjacent urban
development does not prohibit it. Privately-owned marshes which provide choice
waterfowl habitat may be leased for as much as $25-300 per acre.
THREATS
Marshes along some water supply reservoirs aze protected because their contribu-
tion to water quality is recognized. However, other marshes in the upper ends of
lakes are threatened by dredging. Some freshwater marshes will be destroyed by
tl3 .

TYPES OF WETLANDS
the construction of new reservoirs, although new marshes may develop in the
reservoir backwaters. Smaller freshwater marshes may be altered through
removal of beaver dams and draining. Many freshwater marshes in the Piedmont
and Mountains are becoming more like bottomland hardwood forests or swamp
forests as shrubs and trees become established.
SIMILAR TYPES
• Mountain bogs are not permanently flooded and have sphagnum hummocks.
• Brackish marshes occur only in the outer Coastal Plain and are dominated by
salt meadow cordgrass and black needlerush.
• Ephemeral wetlands are not permanently flooded and do not support aquatic
plants.
STTES TO VISTT
When visiting these sites, be alert for poisonous wttonmouths in dense beds of
plants. Water snakes, although not poisonous, are aggressive and can inflict a
painful bite.
Examples of exceptional quality are identified by
~` Goose Creek Slate Park, Beaufort County. From Washington, drive east
on U.S. Highway 264. Turn south on Camp Leach Road to park.
Boardwalks and trail.
Haw River~Troublesome Creek azea. Along Highway Business 29 and
Southern Railroad tracks between Reidsville and Greensboro.
Lake Crabtree County Park, Wake County. From Raleigh, drive north on
U.S. 40. Exit right at Exit 285, Airport Boulevazd. Turn west onto
Airport Boulevard, then south into park. Follow trails to marshes on
southwest shore of lake.
* MacKay Island National Widlife Refuge, Currituck Sound, Currituck
County. From Elizabeth City, drive east on U.S. 158, tum north on U.S.
168. Between 168 and the sound, or use ferry to cross to Knotts Island
and refuge.
Nantahala National Forest, Nantahala River Wetlands, Macon County. From
Franklin, drive west on U.S. Highway 64. Turn south on USFS 67.
Between 67 and the Nantahala River immediately upstream and down
stream of Standing Indian Campground.
* Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife Refuge, Lake Phelps, Washington
County. From Williamston, drive east on U.S. 64. Turn south on
Newland Road. Turn south on Keep Road. South shore.
xa

OCEAN
~ WETLANDS ON THE OCEAN
Estuarine fringe forests, brackish marshes, salt shrub wetlands and salt marshes are
shaped by the influence of the ocean, even when it is not the primary source of
water. These wetlands occur only in the Outer Coastal Plain on the margins of
estuaries and sounds.
r FORMATION
Salt marshes, brackish marshes and salt shrub wetlands develop in a complex
. mosaic in the areas which are periodically inundated by tides. Marshes develop
wherever sediments accumulate faster than the land subsides and provide a stable
base for plants. In the early history of a marsh, slight variations in topography
create many tidal creeks. As the marsh matures, most of these creeks fill with
. sediment.
Although they appear flat, tidal areas are marked by subtle differences in topogra-
phy. Rivers and tidal creeks in these areas flow both inland, carrying shoreward-
, bound tidal water, and seaward, carrying ocean-bound freshwater. As they flood
over their banks, tidal creeks and river outlets create natural levees or deltas with
. slightly higher elevation. These areas may support plants associated with salt
marshes, brackish marshes or salt shrub wetlands, depending on the elevation.
Behind the levee, saltwater may be retained in pools where it becomes highly
concentrated through evaporation. Further back from the levee, saltwater is diluted
. by freshwater inflows and salt marshes grade into brackish marshes. The margins
of the area affected by tides may support salt shrub wetlands.
r Estuarine fringe forests develop on higher areas on the margins of estuaries and
sounds which are dominated by freshwater runoff or streamflow.
CHARACTERISTICS
Estuarine fringe forests, brackish marshes, salt shrub wetlands and salt marshes
. reflect various combinations of freshwater and salt water inflows. Freshwater flows
into these wetlands from rain, surface runoff, rivers, tidal creeks and ground water
. discharge. Salt water enters these wetlands from incoming lunar and wind tides,
tidal creeks or storm surges. Estuarine fringe forests receive most of their inflow
from rain and surface runoff and are rarely flooded by tides. On the other hard, low
salt marshes are inundated twice daily by lunar tides.
Water flows from these wetlands in outgoing tidal creeks and tides and possibly as
. ground water recharge. In summer, evapotranspiration from marsh plants may
represent a substantial water loss.
These wetlands are generally based on reworked marine sediments which are
. typically poor in nutrients, particularly nitrogen. These sediments would support
only low plant productivity were it not for regular inputs of nutrients from surface
. runoff or tides. Organic material and muck only accumulate where outgoing tides
or surface flows allow.
s ~

TYPES OF WETLANDS
Plants and animals in these wetlands aze subject to salinity fluctuations, alternate
drying and submergence and daily and seasonal temperature variations. These
environmental stressors are more of a problem for plants and small animals with
limited mobility than for larger or more mobile animals. These wetlands tend to
be dominated by those plants and animals which have developed strategies to
endure these environmental stressors. Within brackish mazshes, salt shrub
wetlands and salt marshes, plants occur in zones reflecting the balance of fresh-
water and tidal inflow.
Despite stress caused by environmental factors, salt marshes and some brackish
marshes are some of the most productive ecosystems in the world. The high
productivity is appazentiy due to overbank flooding and tidal flushing. Overbank
flooding deposits nutrient-rich sediments from uplands along tidal creeks,
promoting plant growth. When marsh plants die, they break into fragments of
organic material called detritus. While few animals feed upon marsh plants
directly, many species feed on detritus. Bacteria and fungi feed upon plant
detritus, enriching it with their bodies and making nutrients more available to
other grazers. Once it begins to be broken down, the enriched detritus is flushed
throughout the marsh and adjacent estuaries by regular tidal flooding. There the
detritus forms the basis of many food chains for marine and estuarine fish and
shellfish.
Estuarine fringe wetlands aze seldom subjected to fides, but they are nonetheless
heavily influenced by the ocean. Salt spray and strong winds prune woody
vegetation and select for salt-tolerant species. Large bodies of water moderate
temperatures, allowing more tropical plant species to extend further north.
Periodic flooding by wind tides brings sediments and nutrients into these wet-
lands.
Estuarine fringe wetlands aze fairly abundant in North Carolina. Brackish
marshes, salt shrub wetlands and salt marshes are common and often extensive.

OCEAN
ESTUARINE FRINGE FORESTS
PROFILE
Distribution: Outer Coastal Plain, more common from Cape Lookout north.
Landscape position: along the margins of estuaries and freshwater sounds.
Typical hydrology: semi-permanently to permanently saturated; rarely flooded by
salt or brackish tides.
Soils: organic or sandy soils, usually with recent deposits of sand or silt.
Dominant plants: swell-developed tree and shrub layer and sparse herb layer
Trees: Loblolly pine, Pinus taeda FAC
Red maple, Acer rubrum FAC
Sweetgum, Liquidambar styraciflua FAC+
Swamp tupelo, Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora OBL
Shrubs: Wax myrtle, Myrica cerifera FAC+
Gallberry, Ilex glabra FACW
Vines: Greenbrier, Smilax laurifolia FACW+
Herbs: Netted chainfem, Woodwardia areolata OBL
Cinnamon fern, Osmunda cinnamomea FACW+
Estuarine fringe forests are most easily identified by their location along shorelines
of estuaries or sounds in the northern half of the Outer Coastal Plain. These
wetlands are sustained primarily by rainfall and surface runoff with occasional tidal
flooding. Flooding from the adjacent estuary is indicated by sandy deposits overlay-
ing the native soils.
x;..
Estuarine fringe forest in background

TYPES OF WETLANDS
Estuarine fringe forests are dominated by plants that invade areas after severe
disturbances such as intense fires or prolonged flooding. These forests may be
found between wetlands that are flooded more regularly, such as (tidal) freshwater
and brackish marshes, and inland communities that are burned more frequently,
such as pocosins or wet flats. In other areas, estuarine fringe forests grade into non-
wetland communities such as maritime forests.
This wetland type is fairly abundant in North Carolina, especially along the
mainland facing Pamlico Sound.
VALUE
Because of their location, estuarine fringe forests are valuable for water storage
and shoreline stabilization. During coastal storms, these forests store tidal surges
and reduce flooding in areas located inland from the estuary. Their trees, shrubs
and vines stabilize estuarine shorelines and absorb the energy from coastal storms
This type is a recent addition to the types identified by the Natural Heritage
Program and has not been investigated in any depth. The likelihood of finding rare
animals or plants in these communities is unlrnown.
THREATS
Because of federal and state regulations, these wetlands are seldom converted to
other uses. They may be altered by fires spreading from adjacent uplands, although
they will become re-established over time. Rising sea level will permanently
convert some of these wetlands to brackish marshes in the future.
SIMII,AR TYPES
• Wet flats and tall pocosins are often found in the same general area but extend
inland from the estuary. They lack recent deposits of sand or silt.
SITES TO VISIT
When visiting these sites, take precautions to prevent bites by ticks and chiggers.
Be alert for poisonous copperheads.
Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge, Durant's Island, Dare County. From
Manteo, drive west on U.S. Highway 64/U.S. Highway 264. Follow 64 to
East Lake Landing. Waterways to island.
Swanquarter National Wildlife Refuge, Hyde County. From Belhaven, drive
east on U.S. 264. Turn south towards Rose Bay. Both sides of road.
Theodore Roosevelt Natural Area, Carteret County. From Atlantic Beach,
drive west on N.C. 58. Facing Bogue sound.
xs

OCEAN
BRACKISH MARSHES
PROFILE
Distribution: Outer Coastal Plain.
Landscape position: margins of sounds and estuaries, usually located away from
inlets.
Typical hydrology: irregularly or regularly flooded by salt or brackish water and
freshwater. Many brackish marshes are dissected by mosquito ditches.
Soils: typically organic but occasionally mineral soils.
Dominant plants: herb layer heavily dominated by salt meadow cordgrass and black
needlerush with no tree or shn~b layers.
Herbs: Black needlerush, Juncus roemerianus OBL
Salt meadow cordgrass, Spartina patens FACW
Giant cordgrass, Spartina cynosuroides OBL
Sawgrass, Cladium jamaicense OBL
Saltgrass, Distichus spicata FACW+
Glasswort, Salicornia spp. OBL
Brackish marshes are distinguished by their lack of trees and shrubs and by the
dominance of cordgrass and needlerush. Despite apparent uniformity, the plants
actually form a mosaic reflecting subtle changes in salinity. These wetlands
probably burned on a regular cycle under natural conditions. Without fire, black
needlerush grows into dense stands which may clog drainage ways.
Brackish marsh

TYPES OF WETLANDS
Brackish marshes develop where freshwater from rivers dilutes saltwater from
tides. Some brackish marshes are regularly flooded by tides while others experi-
ence only occasional flooding, depending on their location and elevation. They
may be found interspersed between freshwater marshes and salt marshes or salt
shrub wetlands as the mix of freshwater and saltwater changes.
Extensive brackish marshes face into sounds such as Pamlico Sound from both the
mainland and from barrier islands. This wetland type is very common in North
Carolina.
VALUE
Because of their location, brackish marshes are valuable for storing floodwaters
from both rivers and tides. North Carolina's rivers now carry more water than
previously because of increased runoff from impervious surfaces such as parking
lots and buildings. Brackish marshes help to absorb the flush released by coastal
rivers at their outlets. During coastal storms, brackish marshes store tidal surges
and reduce inland flooding. Brackish marshes also help to absorb the energy of
stones and to reduce damage to inland areas.
Brackish marshes are among the most productive ecosystems in the world.
Flooding brings nutrients into the marsh and moves detritus into estuaries and deep
water where it forms the basis for many food chains for marine organisms. The
high productivity makes brackish marshes very valuable as wildlife habitat. They
are favored areas for migrating waterfowl as well as for resident muskrat, nutria,
raccoon, and wading birds. Canada geese and snowgeese arrive in great numbers
during the winter. Snowgeese may consume all grasses in an area, creating an
"eatout" channel which may persist for many years. Muskrats typically build small
beaver-like lodges but they may also burrow into banks like coypu (nutria).
Because of their high value for wildlife, brackish marshes are also popular for
hunting leases.
THREATS
Due to federal and state regulations, brackish marshes are seldom drained or filled
at present. However, many marshes have been affected by former construction of
mosquito ditches. Coastal storms occasionally close inlets such as the former inlet
at Currituck Banks, reducing the influence of tides and converting brackish
marshes to freshwater marshes. Runoff from urban areas on the coast may bring
high levels of nutrients and bacteria into brackish marshes. This runoff may
contaminate oysters and other shellfish and make them unfit for consumption.
Suppression of natural fires alters the hydrology of many brackish marshes and
may reduce their productivity. Common reed (Phragmites spp.) is invading many
brackish marshes, seriously reducing species diversity.
SIMII,AR TYPES
• Salt marshes are located near inlets and dominated by smooth cordgrass.
• Freshwater marshes are characterized by plants such as cattails and pickerel
weed which cannot tolerate salt or brackish water. They only occur in sounds
distant from inlets at the mouths of rivers.

r
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•
OCEAN
STTES TO VISIT
When visiting these sites, be alert for poisonous cottonmouths. Biting salt-marsh
mosquitoes, sandflies (no-seeums), greenhead flies and deer flies are abundant in
summer.
Examples of exceptional quality are indicated by
Cazolina Beach State Park, New Hanover County. From Wilmington, drive
south on U.S. 421. Turn west on Dow Road (SR 1573) and follow signs.
Sugarloaf Trail has boardwalks through mazshes.
Croatan National Forest, Cedar Point Tidewater Trail, Cateret County. From
Morehead City, drive west on U.S. 70. Bear left on N.C. 24. Turn north on
SR 58. Turn west on Dudley Road to Cedar Point.
Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge, Dare County. From Manteo, drive east on
U.S. 264/64. Turn south on N.C. 12 and cross Oregon Inlet to refuge.
Brackish marshes in waterfowl impoundments.
* Cedar Island National Wildlife Refuge, Carteret County. From Beaufort,
drive east on U.S. 70. Turn north on N.C. 12. Both sides of road in refuge.
Shows zonation of plants with different flooding and salinity.
* Goose Creek State Park, Beaufort County. From Washington, drive east on
U.S. Highway 264. Turn south on Camp Leach Road to park. Boardwalks
and trail. Marshes affected by rise in ocean. Shows marshes affected by
rise in ocean level.

TYPES OF WETLANDS
SALT SHRUB WETLANDS
PROFILE
Distribution: Outer Coastal Plain.
Landscape position: landward margins and higher areas of salt and brackish
marshes.
Typical hydrology: irregularly saturated or inundated by (saltwater) wind tides.
Soils: organic or mineral. These areas are generally mapped the same as adjacent
marshes or uplands.
Dominant plants: primarily shrubs.
Shrubs: Marsh elder, Iva frutescens FACW+
Silverling, Baccharis halimifolia FAC
Wax myrtle, Myrica cerifera FAC+
Sea ox-eye, Borrichia frutescens OBL
Salt shrub wetlands can be identified by their lack of trees and their position along
the margins of sal[ or brackish marshes. Their higher elevation protects them from
frequent flooding so woody plants can thrive, but trees and less-tolerant shrubs
cannot invade due w the salinity. In some cases, saltwater bewmes trapped in salt
shrub wetlands and, through evaporation, becomes more concentrated than
seawater. Because of these environmental stressors, salt shrub wetlands do not
change into estuarine fi-inge forests.
~~~
,..
~ ,fir. = -

Salt shrub wetlands, Cedar Island NWR, Carteret County H~

OCEAN
Salt shrub wetlands grade into estuarine fringe forests, pocosins or wet flats on their
^ upper boundaries. They typically adjoin salt or brackish marshes along their lower
boundaries.
Salt shrub wetlands are common all along the North Carolina coast.
VALUE
. Salt shrub wetlands are often valuable for stabilizing shorelines along estuaries.
Their location and dense woody vegetation make them highly effective in slowing
and retaining floodwaters.
THREATS
Because of federal and state regulations, these wetlands are seldom converted to
other uses. They may, however, be altered by natural processes. Fires spreading
from adjacent uplands may bum shrubs in dry years although they will become re-
. established over time. Salt shrub wetlands on barrier islands are subject to overwash
and sand deposition. Rising sea level will cause these wetlands to become more
regularly flooded, probably converting them to marshes.
SIMILAR TYPES
• Estuarine fringe forests have well-developed tree layers.
SITES TO VISTT
When visiting these sites, be alert for poisonous cottonmouths. Biting salt-marsh
mosquitoes, sandflies (no-seeums), greenhead flies and deer flies are abundant in
summer.
i
Cape Hatteras National Seashore, Bodie Island, Dare County. From Manteo,
drive east on U.S. U.S. 264/64. Turn south on N.C. 12. Both sides of road.
Cape Hatteras National Seashore, Ocracoke Island, Hyde County. From
r Ocracoke, drive north on N.C. 12.
Croatan National Forest, White Oak River, Carteret County. From Morehead
City, drive west on U.S. 70. Bear left on N.C. 24. Turn north on N.C. 58.
At Kuhns turn west on Kuhns Road. Turn west at Stella. Near bridge at
river.
Fort Fisher State Recreation Area, Zeke's Island and others, Brunswick
County. From Carolina Beach, drive south on U.S. 421 to Fort Fisher.
Follow road past ferry dock to dead end. Access to island via the "Rocks"
breakwater.
Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge, Dare County. From Manteo, drive east on
U.S. 264/64. Turn south on N.C. 12 and cross Oregon Inlet to refuge.
Sound side.

TYPES OF WETLANDS
SALT MARSHES
PROFILE
Distribution: Outer Coastal Plain, particularly south of Cape Lookout.
Landscape position: margins of sounds and estuaries. This type is usually located
in close proximity to inlets.
Typical hydrology: regularly flooded by (saltwater) lunar tides. Many salt marshes
are dissected by mosquito ditches.
Soils: sands and silts.
Dominant plants: herb layer heavily dominated by smooth cordgrass with no tree
or shrub layers.
Herbs: Smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora OBL
Glasswort, Salicornia sp. OBL
Salt meadow cordgrass, Spartina patens FACW
Saltgrass, Distichlis spicata FACW+
Salt marshes are found in low, flat, protected areas which are flooded by ocean
tides on a regular daily schedule. They are easily identified by their lack of trees
and shrubs and by their position on the margins of sounds and estuaries. Most salt
marshes are drained by intricate networks of tidal creeks and mosquito ditches.

Ken Taylor, NCWKC
Salt marsh, Hammocks Beach State Park, Onslow County

OCEAN
The plant and animal communities of salt marshes aze adapted to daily inunda-
tion and drying as well as high salinity. Because of the environmental stressors,
this wetland type is heavily dominated by relatively few plant species. The
plants which have adapted to these conditions, such as smooth cordgrass, can be
highly. productive because of regular inputs of nutrients. The extreme environ-
ment wmbined with wide distribution and lack of isolation causes salt marshes
to contain very few rare plant species.
The upland borders and slight rises in salt marshes may develop into salt shrub
wetlands. Salt marshes also gradually grade into brackish marshes as distance
1 from the ocean and the influence of freshwater sources increases. On their lower
borders, salt marshes grade into deepwater communities.
Salt marshes are common and extensive all along the North Carolina coast. They
are best developed in the middle and southern portions of the coast where the
tidal amplitude is greatest.
VALUE
Because of their location and extent, salt marshes aze valuable for storing
floodwaters during coastal storms. Their position along the margins of estuaries
and their dense stands of persistent plants make Wem valuable for stabilizing
shorelines. Salt marshes help to absorb the energy of storms and to reduce
damage to inland azeas.
Salt marshes and their mudflats are extremely valuable in providing habitat for a
variety of animals. Because regular tides distribute nutrients, salt marsh plants
are among the most productive in the world. Few animals consume the
cordgrass directly but many consume the detritus and the detritus~aters. Ribbed
mussels clinging to cordgrass and clumps of oysters on the banks of tidal creeks
filter detritus from the water. At low Ede, fiddler crabs emerge from their
burrows to forage among plants. Tides retreating from the salt marsh carry
detritus into estuaries where it forms the basis of many food chains for marine
organisms. Salt marshes are essential for maintaining populations of estuarine
and marine fish and shellfish.
Salt marshes also provide habitat for more terrestrial animals. A wide variety of
waterfowl, shorebirds and wading birds visit the marsh at various times of the
year. Of the smaller birds, red-winged blackbirds and seaside sparrows are most
numerous. Clapper rails are commonly heard and occasionally seen in the
marshes. Great and snowy egrets, green and great blue herons, and black-
crowned night herons may be seen wading in pools and tidal creeks.l-Iundreds
to thousands of sandpipers and other shorebirds forage in the tidal mudflats.
American black ducks breed and raise their young in the salt marsh. The
runways of rice rats and footprints of raccoons indicate their presence but mink,
. river otters, and red fox are also present, if less noticeable.
~ ~'

TYPES OF WETLANDS
The abundance and variety of wildlife as well as the access to water in salt marshes
makes them popular for recreation. Visitors enjoy fishing, shellfishing, birding,
studying plants and recreational hunting.
THREATS
Due to state and federal regulations, few salt marshes are being filled for urban
uses. However, stormwater runoff from urbanized areas may carry high levels of
sediment, nutrients, toxics and bacteria into salt marshes and estuaries. This runoff
may contaminate oysters and other shellfish and make them unfit for consumption.
SIMII.AR TYPES
• Brackish marshes are dominated by salt meadow cordgrass, big cordgrass or
black needlerush in contrast to smooth cordgrass. They are located away from
inlets.
• Freshwater marshes have plants which are less tolerant to saltwater. They are
located in sounds at the mouths of large rivers.
STTES TO VISTT
When visiting these sites, be alert for poisonous cottonmouths. Biting salt-marsh
mosquitoes, sandflies (no-seeums), greenhead flies and deer flies are abundant in
summer.
Examples of exceptional quality are indicated by
* Cedar Island National WIldlife Refuge, Carteret County. From Beaufort,
drive east on U.S. 70. Tum north on N.C. 12. Both sides of road in refuge.
Shows zonation of plants with different flooding and salinity.
Croatan National Forest, Cedar Point Tidewater Trail, Cateret County. From
Morehead City, drive west on U.S. 70. Bear left on N.C. 24. Turn north on
SR 58. Turn west on Dudley Road to Cedar Point. Tideland Trail.
Fort Fisher State Recreation Area, Zeke's Island and others, Brunswick
County. From Carolina Beach, drive south on U.S. 421/3/5 to Fort Fisher.
Follow road past ferry dock to dead end. Access w island via the "Rocks"
breakwater.
Hammocks Beach State Park, Bear Island, Onslow County. From Morehead
City, drive west on U.S. 70. Bear left on N.C. 24. Pass Swansboro and
turn south on N.C. 172. Turn east on Shell Rock Landing Road and
follow to landing. Take public ferry to island, passing through salt
marshes.
Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge, Dare County. From Manteo, drive east
on U.S. 264/64. Tttrn south on N.C. 12 and cross Oregon Inlet to refuge.
Salt marshes on sound side and beneath the Oregon Inlet bridge.
Fort Macon State Park, Bogue Sound, Carteret County. From Atlantic
Beach, drive east on N.C. S8 to park.
96

THE FUTURE OF
NORTH CAROLINA
WETLANDS
Wetlands are not static features of the landscape but are dynamic systems. They
undergo change over time caused by both natural processes and human modifica-
tion. This chapter examines the changes wetlands are undergoing and what the
future of North Carolina wetlands may be.
NATURAL PROCESSES OF CHANGE
Even when [hey are undisturbed by human beings, natural systems change over
time. Traditional ecological theory proposes that this change follows a predictable
process called succession. The classical theory of succession was that plants occur
in groupings called communities. Over time, plants in a community change their
environment and prepare the site for the next community in a successional series.
Succession proceeds until a climax community that is characteristic of the climate
is established. Early communities are considered relatively unstable while later
communities are considered more stable. Are wetlands more like early successional
communities or mature communities? How stable are wetlands?
As the previous chapter illustrates, wetlands often have distinctive groupings of
plants. These groupings, however, are more often caused by environmental factors
than by succession. Plants that have similar tolerances to saturation or inundation
and disturbances such as fue tend to occur together. In many cases, the occurrence
of particular species depends on the hydrology and micro-topography of the site.
The availabIIity of seeds and what species first reach the site after disturbance are
also important.
Plants in some wetlands alter their environment through formation of peat deposits
made up of decomposed plants. Under the right conditions, peat deposits can create
raised domes and reduce the level of inundation. Early theorists observed this trend
and predicted that wetlands will succeed from lakes to bogs to wet forests to upland
forests as depressions fill with peat. However, this theory is not supported by field
observation, and it has been abandoned by most wetland scientists (Mitsch and
Gosselink 1993). The accumulation of peat appears to be limited by the upper
limits of saturation: above this level, organic material breaks down rapidly and peat
does not accumulate. Peat wetlands may become less inundated, but they generally
do not become uplands without external alteration of their hydrology.
97 .

FUTURE OF WETLANDS
According to the theory of succession, mature communities aze believed to have
greater resistance to change than early successional communities due to the
complex interactions between plants and animals. Mature communities aze
believed to have productivity that just balances death and decomposition. This
productivity is based on recycling nutrients within the system. They generally
have complex food webs based on detritus-eaters. Mature communities are well-
organized spatially, with many well-defined vertical and horizontal zones. Many
of their animals have complex life cycles.
Based on these criteria, wetlands seem to have characteristics of both immature
and mature communities (Mitsch and Gosselink 1993). In some types of wetlands,
productivity is high because nutrients aze carved in from outside the system by
water. Some wetlands, such as salt marshes, have complex food webs based on
detritus-eaters. Others, such as mountain bogs, support few animals indepen-
dently. Their animals must rely on adjacent uplands to provide additional sources
of food and shelter. The spatial organization of wetlands is generally created by
small environmental differences rather than well-defined zones of plants. Wet-
lands often have many animals with complex life-cycles, but these have devel-
oped to enable the animals to survive rapid environmental change rather than to
exploit unique habitats.
While ecologists now recognize that succession is invariably interrupted by
natural disasters and disturbances, the idea that wmmunities develop over time
remains. For wetlands, abiotic factors, such as hydrology and fue, appear more
critical to change than "self-imposed" change created by plants and animals. Few
wetlands become terrestrial ecosystems unless the water table is lowered or the
land is raised by geological forces or human modification. Pine savannas may
develop into wet pine flats in the absence of fire. On a larger scale, coastal
wetlands are migrating inland due to the continuing rise in sea level. Sea level is
presently rising at the rate of about one foot per century. This incursion of salt
water causes salt marsh plants to invade brackish marshes and brackish marsh
plants to invade freshwater marshes and swamp forests near the mouths of rivers.
While this process appears to be merely an inland migration of wetland types, in
many areas development has taken place along the margins of estuaries which
may prevent the migration (Brinson 1991).
DIRECT MODIFICATION OF WETLANDS
Human beings modify their landscape in many ways, both duect and indirect.
Direct modification involves making changes within the wetland itself as opposed
to making changes in the watershed that will ultimately affect the wetland. Table
14 presents a sample list of direct modifications.
Modifications which have the greatest impact on wetlands aze those which change
all three characteristics-the hydrology, the soils and the plants. Mining wetlands
results in the disruption of hydrology and removal of plants and soil. Depositing
fill destroys wetland hydrology and buries plants and surface soils. However, this
98 .

r
i
i

r
1
DIRECT MODIFICATION
Table 14. Modifications to Wetlands
MODIFICATIONS TO WETLANDS
phosphate mining
sand/gravel mining
peat mining
depositing fill dirt
ditching, channelizing or piping
removing beaver dams
withdrawing water from streams or lakes
dredging
constructing reservoirs
converting to pine plantations
harvesting trees
burning or suppressing fire
foot, bicycle or off-road vehicle traffic
introducing non-native plants
collecting rare plants
collecting reptiles or amphibians for pets
does not generally occur in estuarine wetlands. The Coastal Area Management
Act restricts dredging or filling in all salt marshes and brackish marshes and in
many salt scrub wetlands and estuarine fringe forests.
Modifications which affect only hydrology can be just as effective in destroying
wetlands as modifications which change all three characteristics. Changing the
hydrology will eventually change the plants and soils as well. Ditching wetlands,
channelizing or piping streams and removing beaver dams frequently alters the
hydrology of wetlands by allowing water to drain faster. Converting wetlands to
agricultural use generally requires ditching as well as removal of plants and soil
preparation. Ditching is usually required because the removal of trees greatly

FUTURE OF WETLANDS
reduces evapotranspiration and increases inundation, leaving the site wetter than it
was originally. While not intended to alter wetlands, withdrawing water from
streams or lakes for agricultural, industrial or municipal uses can reduce inundation
levels in wetlands on lakes or streams. On the other hand, dredging freshwater
marshes or constructing reservoirs can flood existing wetlands and convert them to
deepwater habitats.
In some wetlands, it is possible to alter the plant cover without significantly
changing the hydrology. Some wetlands can be converted to pine plantations
without ditching or bedding the site. In addition, many areas of eastern North
Cazolina aze harvested for timber that is then allowed to regenerate naturally. As
part of forestry management, many wet flats are burned to reduce weedy hazd-
woods and flammable litter; this practice can change the species composition of
tree, shrub and herb layers.
Plant composition may also be altered unintentionally. Sphagnum moss and herbs
in mountain bogs, seeps and ephemeral wetlands aze very susceptible to damage by
foot, bicycle and off-road vehicle traffic. The species composition of wetlands can
also be altered by the introduction of non-native species. Many bottomland hazd-
wood forests (especially neaz cities) have been invaded by Japanese honeysuckle
and Chinese privet. Common reed (Phragmites spp.) has invaded many brackish
marshes and has greatly lowered plant and animal diversity. Thankfully, the most
aggressive invader of southern roadsides, kudzu, survives poorly in wetlands.
In recent yeazs, interest has arisen in the potential use of wetlands to treat wastewa-
ter or stormwater. Research suggests that some wetlands can effectively remove
many pollutants from wastewater and urban runoff. Partially treated wastewater
may be sprayed into forested wetlands, an attractive idea in some coastal areas that
have few other options. This method has been successful in other states when the
systems were properly designed and operated. The initial trial of this method in
North Carolina was unsuccessful, appazentiy due to design error. In Brown Marsh
Swamp neaz Clarkton, 98 percent of the trees in the area receiving spray application
died (Kuenzler 1987). Nevertheless, stream sampling showed that the swamp
system removed sufficient amounts of nutrients to handle the pollutants in the
wastewater. In other communities across the state, stormwater runoff from subdivi-
sions is presently being directed into riparian wetlands. The greatest difficulty with
these systems is effectively collecting runoff and then dispersing it into sheet flow.
The methods and rate of application (loading rate) appear to be critical to the
success of these systems as well as domestic waste applications.
The use of wetlands to treat wastewater and stormwater is likely to increase in the
future. These activities increase the amount of water and nutrients entering wet-
lands and can alter hydrologic patterns. The use of wetlands for these purposes
should be carefully monitored over the life of the project to avoid overwhelming
the wetland's capacity to absorb additional water and nutrients.
1111

INDIRECT MODIFICATION
MODIFYING THE WATERSHEDS OF WETLANDS
Modifying the watersheds of wetlands also affects wetlands, primarily through
changing hydrologic inputs or patterns of burning. Modifications to watersheds over
the past several hundred years continue to affect wetlands today. Based on his
interpretation of the work of Stanley Trimble, Wade Nutter has described the
evolution of Piedmont river valleys and predicted their future development (Trimble
1973). His work suggests that, because of past modification of land cover, river
valleys in the Piedmont are changing in ways which will change riparian wetlands
over relatively short time periods.
Prior to European settlement, most Piedmont streams flowed on bedrock through
forested watersheds. Wetlands were more characteristic of the Coastal Plain. Since
the fast settlement by Europeans, large amounts of land have been cleared and
intensely cultivated. These efforts culminated in the early 1900s with clearing of
most upland areas. As a consequence, more runoff entered streams, causing
headwater streams to cut into their banks. In medium to large streams, topsoil was
deposited as layers of sediments. Nutter (1993) found deposits as deep as seventeen
feet in streams in northeastern Georgia. Over time, these deposits blocked flow and
encouraged overbank flooding, creating complex drainage patterns of braided
channels, levees and backswamps in broad floodplains. Where the channels were
later straightened or dredged, the streams became deeply incised in the floodplain
deposits and approached their orginal base levels.
Since the abandonment of large areas of agricultural land during the 1930's Depres-
sion, land use practices have improved. Many upland areas have been converted to
pastures or managed forests. As a result, less runoff and sediment is entering
streams. With less sediment being washed into them, headwater streams in the
upper Piedmont are gradually flushing out their sediment as they seek stable

Stormwater diverted to wetlands

FUTURE OF WETLANDS
bedrock. Old dams, mill races, low water bridges and cut tree stumps are
reappearing in some areas. Larger streams and rivers in the lower Piedmont are
receiving these sediments, but eventually these streams will also be washed
clear and become incised into the landscape. These changes may mean a loss of
wetlands in the upper Piedmont as streams return to bedrock and overbank
flooding declines. In the lower reaches of streams, deposition of sediment may
create new wetlands. However, these too will be abandoned over long periods
of time as sediment is washed into coastal estuaries.
Nutter's research and its implications for Piedmont wetlands show how changes
in watersheds affect wetlands. Table 151ists some modifications to watersheds
which affect North Carolina wetlands over a much shorter time period.
Modifying the watersheds of wetlands has the greatest effect on wetland
hydrology and water chemistry. Pumping groundwater from shallow aquifers
beneath coastal freshwater marshes and mountain bogs has lowered ground
water in some local areas. Harvesting trees from the watershed can also alter the
amount and chemistry of ground water flowing into wetlands. Converting areas
with natural vegetation to urban, agriculture or forestry land use, constructing
highways, and harvesting trees results in relatively more runoff into wetlands.
Besides its effect on hydrology, such runoff carries sediments, nutrients and
toxicants into wetlands.
Table 15. Modifying the Watersheds of Wetlands
MODIFYING THE WATERSHEDS
OF WETLANDS
Altering groundwater flow into the wetland-
reducing infiltrahon through paving upslope
areas
~~~~~ pumping groundwater from aquifers ~~~~~~___,
harvesting trees
Increasing runoff into the wetland-
converting to urban land uses ~~ ~ ~~~~
constructing highways ~ ~~
converting to pine plantations, pasture or
annual row crops
harvesting trees W_ ~.,-,__________._ _
Altering streams flowing into the wetland-
~~channelizing or piping streams ~~~
diverting runoff or streamflow from the
wetland
~~ withdrawing from streams or lakes, releasing
water in another basin
Isolating the habitat in the wetland-~~~~~~~~
converting all surrounding land to urban land
uses
bulkheading
1112

INDIRECT MODIFICATION
Altering streamflow into wetlands can also affect wetland hydrology.
Channelizing or piping streams in the watershed above wetlands increases rate of
streamflow into riparian weflands, increasing flood frequency, height and duration.
(This situation contrasts with channelizing streams through or around the wetland,
which decreases flooding frequency, height and duration.) Reservoirs constructed
on streams above wetlands generally store floodwaters and release them over
longer periods. The effect on downstream wetlands is fewer and lower but longer
floods. In some urban areas, water is withdrawn from one watershed and released
into another, as when water is withdrawn from a reservoir, used and then treated
and released from a wastewater treatment plant into a stream in another watershed.
This interbasin transfer may reduce streamflow in the first watershed and increase
it in the second.
Modifying watersheds also affects the wildlife habitat of wetlands through
isolation. When the areas sturounding a wetland become urbanized, the wetland
becomes isolated habitat. This isolation greatly reduces the wetland's value as
wildlife habitat, especially for smaller wetlands which rely on adjacent uplands to
fulfill habitat needs. Salt marshes, salt shurb wetlands and brackish marshes may
also become isolated if bulkheads are built on their inland border. These bulkheads
prevent the marshes from migrating inland in response to sea level changes.
1113
Forested wetland used as wastewater treatment near
Myrtle Beach, S.C.

FUTURE OF WETLANDS
ENVISIONING A FUTURE WITH WETLANDS
The future of wetlands in North Carolina depends on the interaction between
ecological processes and modifications brought about by human beings. Modifica-
tions are driven by social and economic forces tempered by federal, state and local
regulatory programs. While this manual cannot focus on the specifics of regulatory
programs, it can examine general trends which will affect the future of wetlands.
The future of wetlands which are influenced by saltwater seems relatively secure in
North Carolina. The state Coastal Area Management Act enacted in 1978 restricts
the dredging or filling of saltwater-based wetlands. These wetlands, however, are
vulnerable to rising sea level. In some areas, bulkheads and other development may
prevent inland migration of wetlands.
The future of freshwater wetlands in North Carolina is less secure. In 1990, the
adoption of federal Swampbuster regulations eliminated farm-program benefits for
crops produced on newly converted wetlands. These regulations have nearly ended
large-scale conversion of wetlands to agriculture in North Carolina. About the
same time, federa1404 and state 401 programs requiring permits for filling
wetlands were strengthened. However Division of Environmental Management
records indicate that each year about 500 acres of North Carolina freshwater
wetlands are permitted to be cleared, mined or filled. These are generally wetlands
with lower wetland values, but wetlands with higher values are unavoidably lost as
well.
Concern for preserving wetland values is leading to the expansion of wefland
programs. Various state and local governments are developing recommended
practices that reduce the impact of certain land uses on wetlands and waters. For
example, foresters are encouraged to use the Best Management Practices for
Forestry in the Wetlands of North Carolina (FRD 1990). Regulatory review and
monitoring is increasing and may slow the conversion and fill of wetlands. Efforts
to restore or create wetlands as mitigation for wetlands which are destroyed are
becoming more common. Restoration of degraded (often filled) wetlands usually
has a greater chance of success than creation of wetlands where no wetland was
previously.
Current programs are probably unable to totally prevent freshwater wetland fill or
to restrict land uses around wetlands, even if this were appropriate. New state or
federal laws would be needed to provide broader protection for wetlands. Purchase
(either fee simple or easements) of wetlands with special ecological attributes
would offer the greatest protection for these areas, but additional funding would
probably be necessary. Any expansion of wetland programs would have to be
carefully balanced against respect for private property rights and consideration of
program costs. Ultimately, the future of North Carolina wetlands will depend on
the public desire and political will to protect them.
~;

ENVISIONING
The future for weflands will brighten if North Carolina's citizens recognize the
value of wetlands and take responsible action. In this future, the most valuable
wetlands would be identified and purchased or protected by binding agreements.
Reduced taxes would be available for those who agreed to preserve wetlands on
. their land. Wetlands would be identified and incorporated into river basin plans and
local land use plans. Developers would design site plans to take advantage of
wetland values on their property. Land-owners would recognize and protect
remaining wetlands and buffer areas in subdivisions, shopping areas and industrial
parks. Experimental sites for stormwater and wastewater treatment would be set up,
based on careful planning and long-term monitoring. Federal and state agencies and
private corporations would form partnerships to identify and restore degraded and
filled wetlands, and universities would cooperate in providing research for these
i efforts. Best management practices would be followed to protect the value of all of
North Carolina's wetland and aquatic resources.
• This future will depend on citizens who are knowledgeable about the characteris-
' tics, values and types of North Carolina wetlands. While reference books provide a
basis for this knowledge, appreciation comes only from walking, wading or
. paddling through a variety of wetland types. It is hoped that this Field Guide will
contribute to your observation of wetlands in North Carolina.
f
i
i
•

Appendix 1
Comparison of Types to Natural Heritage Program Types
WETLAND I PAGE NHP TYPESa
TYPE ( ! PAGEa (RARITYe
~
Wetlands sustained by rain-
wet flats 44 nonu~erine wet hardwood forest ~ 203 Gl Sl
___
_
nonnverine swamp forest _ 205 G2G3 S3
__ _. _
i pine savanna ~ ~6 i G3 S2
~
pocosins ~ 50
i ° wet pine flatwoods
'low pocosin _
hi h
i
~ 223 C,3G4 S3
207 G3 53
209 G'1 ~
{ ocos
n
S P ~ _ _ ____~ _.
I pond hmc v.oodland _211 G4G5 S4

j _ _
peadand AUan~c White Cedar forest
tray forest {~ 214 G2 S2
~ 216 G3G4? S3?
G2? Sl?
__~ _ _. _ _ _ small de ression ocosin
_ _ P_..~ P _. __ _
l 221
_ _ __
171 G3? S2
ephemeral 53 floodplain poo
wetlands !
_.__ _________r ___._
upland depression swamp forest
197 G3 S2
!vernal pool 232 C~3 S2
~
c ress savanna '_ t }
G2~ El
Wetlands sustained by groundwater discharge-
W_. _:_
.
__~~_...... ~ ., _...~
seeps ~% _ ~ _._. ~_.~..__ ____~ _
high elevation seep ___. _ W _ .._.
.
191 ~ G3 53 __,
;low elevation seep i 200 i G4? S3 __

_._. ....._._„ ,f~w,_ ° P sandh~ll see
_ __,_ _ . _ ___ _.~~ ~._~~ __._, ~ 229 G2 S2
__.~_ _.__m..
Wetlands sustained by ground water and surface water-
W .__. ~._ ~._. ~
61
mountain bogs _ _ r~.,µ._., _. _. _.... _ ~ ~ . _____. _ _
southern Appalachian bog (northern) ~~ - __ u
~ 183 3 G1T1 Sl
_
~ _
southern Ap~alacluan bog (southern) ~ 186 i G1T1 Sl
wuthern A ala h~an fen 189 G1T1 Sl
bog forests mm ~ _ ~64 _ s~.'arnp tc~resi i t .g complex (southern) 179 ~ G2G3T2 S2
swamp forest{bog complex (spruce) 181 G3T1 Sl
..
headwater 67 coastal plain small stream swamp !; 161 GS SS
forests i (blackwater)
_ __
_
coastal plain small stream swamp _
163 GST3T4
S2S3?
=
i rownwater
y
~ ~
~€~
edmont/low mountain alluvial forest 175 GS S5
..
...
a
, _. ~ __ ._
montane alluvial forest ~~
-- .,- ____...
.~
__.,.,.~ -
` ] 78 ~ G2? Sl
I _
,freamhead pocosin 218 I G4 S3 __
streamhead Atlantic White Cedar forest 220 ~ G3? S2
Wetlands on rivers and lakes-
bottomland : 5 (coastal plain butlomland hardwoods 152 ; G5T5 S3
hardwood ~. '; (blackwater) _ ,____
~
forests '. ,coastal plain-bottomland hardwoods GSTS S4
i 155
I ~brownwater)
~
i ~p~edmont/mountain bottomland forest 169
< S3?
swamp forests 80 cypress-p~um swamp (blackwater) 147 <,S IS S5

c ress m swam rownwater
~ Pro ~
~ 1 ~o ~~ 1~
_ _
~` oxbow lake 1 58 GS ~~
coastal plain semipermanent ~ 1 ~9 ~. GS S4
impoundment
~
~~ picdmont/mountain swamp lurest
~
- 1 07 C'2 Sl
~ (tidal cypress-gum swamp
--- 253 G4 S3
_ - --
freshwater 70 piedmont/mountain semipermanent 173 G5 S4
marshes upoundment
_
~ ____~____
_ ..___.____,v ~s_ _,__ ___~
small depression pond ? {6 G3 S2
~ natural lake shoreline ~ {a ~2 `;2
~~~~
___ manhme wet rassland~ ~~ ~~~
._.___., 8 ~ __ ___
-~-. ? 11 C,~' S2~
_
_._ :
~ tidal freshwater marsh 250 ' C4 53
Wetlands on the ocean -
estuarine fringe 85 ;estuarine fringe loblolly pine fomst ~ 249 G3? S3?
forests

brackish 87
'brackish marsh _
_ ~ <~~ 57
marshes I
salt shrub 89 i salt shrub ' 6U , C,5 S4
wetlands
salt marshes 91 ~ salt marsh 255 GS SS
salt flat ~ 259 ~ GS S4

APPENDIX 1
aNatural Heritage Program (NHP). 1990. Classification of the
natural communities of North Carolina, Third Approximation.
By Michael P. Schafale and Alan S. Weakley. Raleigh:
Division of Parks and Recreation, North Carolina Depart-
ment of Environment, Health and Natural Resources.
bNatural Heritage Program (NHP). July 1993. Natural areas
database. Raleigh: Division of Parks and Recreation, North
Carolina Department of Environment, Health and Natural
Resources.
bRarity from NHP database, July 1993.
Global Ranks (as assigned by scientific experts, various natural
heritage programs and The Nature Conservancy)
Gl =critically imperiled globally because of extreme rarity or
threat; 5 or fewer occurrences or less than 2,000 acres re-
maining
G2 =imperiled globally because of rarity or threat; 6-20 occur-
rences or 2,000-10,000 acres remaining
G3 =either very rare and local throughout its range or found
locally in a restricted range or because of threat; 21-100
occurrences or 10,000-50,000 acres remaining
G4 =apparently secure globally, although maybe quite rare in
parts of its range
G5 =demonstrably secure globally, although may be quite rare in
parts of its range
G_? =unranked or rank uncertain
G_G_ =rank believed to fall between two or three ranks
T_ =rank of a subtype within a community
North Carolina ranks (as assigned by the North Carolina Natural
Heritage Program based on The Nature Conservancy's system)
S1=critically imperiled in North Carolina because of extreme rarity or
threat; 5 or fewer occurrences or less than 2,000 acres remaining
S2 =imperiled in North Carolina because of rarity or threat; 6-20
occurrences or 2,000-10,000 acres remaining
S3 =rare or uncommon in North Carolina; 21-100 occurrences or
10,000-50,000 acres remaining
S4 =apparently secure in North Carolina, with many occurrences
SS =demonstrably secure in North Carolina and essentially ineradicable
under present conditions
S ~ =unranked or rank uncertain
S S =rank believed to fall between two or three ranks
11

APPENDIX 1
NOTE: Some NHP wetland types are not covered in this Field Guide
because they occur at fewer than 20 sites in the state.
The wetland types discussed in this field guide do not include:
Upland pool 195 (page in
Classification)
Hillside seepage bog 198
Interdune pond 246
Wet marl forest 201
Maritime swamp forest 243
Maritime shrub swamp 244

Appendix 2
Contacts for Wetland Information
Books for Further Reading
Beyer, Fred. 1991. North Carolina: the years before man. A geologic history.
Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press. Readable geologic history of the state,
from the big bang to recent changes in the barrier islands.
Corps of Engineers. 1987. Corps of Engineers wetlands delineation manual.
Technical Report Y-87-1. Vicksburg, MI: United States Department of the Army.
"Official" guide to identifying and delineating wetlands. Includes discussions of
hydrologic indicators, hydric soils and hydrophytic vegetation as well as guidance
for delineating disturbed sites.
Mitsch, William J. and James G. Gosselink. 1993. Wetlands. 2nd edition. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Textbook for wetlands study, covering
everything from biochemical processes to valuation and management of wetlands
Natural Heritage Program (NHP). 1990. Classifccation of the natural communiites
of North Carolina: third approximation. By Michael P. Schafale and Alan S.
Weakley. Raleigh: Division of Parks and Recreation, North Carolina Department of
Environment, Health, and Natural Resources. More detailed classification of
wetlands in North Carolina with lists of typical soils and raze species.
Niering, William A. and Alfred A. Knopf. Audubon Society Field Guide: Wetlands
New York: Audubon. General field guide to wetlands in the United States.
Tiner, Ralph W. 1993. Field guide to coastal wetland plants of the southeastern
United States. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Field guide to wetlands
with clear line drawings of many wetland plants and nontechnical keys.
Tiner, Ralph W. 1988. Field guide to nontidal wetland identification. Baltimore:
Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Field guide to Maryland wetlands with
many photographs of wetland plants and advice on field work.
1_il-

^
1
i
f
APPENDIX 2
Educational Programs and General Information
Environmental Protection Agency (Federal)
publications and general information
Wetlands Protection HoUine ...................1-800-WET-LAND (832-7828)
Fish and Wildlife Service (Federal)
publications and assistance such as grants-in-aid
4401 North Fairfax Drive Arlington,
Virginia 22203 ...................................................................703-358-1817
Office of Environmental Education (State)
clearinghouse of resources for
teachers and general information
111 Hillborough Street, P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687 ...................................................919-733-0711
Division of Parks and Recreation (State)
programs for teachers and the general public in state parks
512 North Salisbury Street, P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687 ...................................................919-733-4181
Natural Heritage Program, Division
of Parks and Recreation (State)
identification and registration of natural areas
512 North Salisbury Street, P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687 ...................................................919-733-7701
Wildlife Resources Commission (State)
determining status of animals in the
state and educational programs
512 North Salisbury Street, P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687 ...................................................919-733-7133
Plant Conservation Program (State)
determining status of plants in the state
512 North Salisbury Street, P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687 ...................................................919-733-3610
Divison of Forest Resources (State)
assistance to landowners and programs in state forests
512 North Salisbury Street, P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687 ...................................................919-733-2162
111

APPENDIX 2
Regulatory Programs
Army Corps of Engineers (Federal)
delineation of wetlands and
404 permits for dredging and filling
Wilmington District Regulatory Branch
69 Darlington Avenue, P.O. Box 1890
Wilmington, NC 28402-1890 ......................................910-251-4511
Natural Resources Conservation Service, Department of Agriculture
(Federal) delineation of wetlands on farmlands
County Soil Conservation Service - in the local telephone directory
Division of Environmental Management, Department of Environment,
Health and Natural Resources (State)
401 water quality certifications and mitigation
Wetlands and Aquatic Plants
Environmental Sciences Building
4401 Reedy Cr. Rd.
Raleigh, NC 27607 ........................................................919-733-1786
Division of Coastal Management, Department of Environment, Health
and Natural Resources (State)
permits to alter wetlands and waters in coastal counties
Parker Lincoln Building
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611-7687 ..............................................919-733-2293
112

^
^
_1
~.
Appendix 3
Common and Scientific Names
of Plants
(Common name in italics indicates a rare or uncommon species.)
COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
Alder ........................................................................... Alnus spp.
Alga(e) ........................................................................ too numerous to list
American elm ............................................................ Lllmus americana
American holly .......................................................... Ilex opaca
Arrow-arum .............................................................. Peltandra virginica
Arrowhead ................................................................. Sagittaria spp.
Ash ......................................................
........................
Fraxinus spp.
Atlantic white cedar ................................................. Chamaecyparis thyoides
Bald cypress ............................................................... Taxodium distichum
Beaked spikerush .......................................................... Eleocharis rostellata
Beakrush ..................................................................... Rhynchospora spp.
Blackjack oak ............................................................. Quercus marilandica
Black needlerush ....................................................... Juncus roemerianus
Black willow .............................................................. Salix nigra
Bladderwort ............................................................... Utricularia spp.
Blue flag ..................................................................... Iris virginica
Blueberry .................................................................... Vaccinium spp.
Bog fern ....................................................................... Thelypteris simulata
Box elder .................................................................... Acer negundo
Buckeye ...................................................................... Aesculus sylvatica
Bulrush ....................................................................... Scirpus spp.
Bunched arrowhead ..................................................... Sagittaria fasciculata
Buttonbush ................................................................ Cephalanthus occidentalis
Canada burnet ............................................................. Sanguisorba canadensis
Canada yew ................................................................. Taxus canadensis
Cane ............................................................................ Arundinaria gigantea
Carolina goldenrod ...................................................... Solidago pulchra
Cattail ......................................................................... Typha spp.
Cherrybark oak ......................................................... Quercus falcata var.
pagodaefolia
Chicory ....................................................................... Chicorium intybus
Cinnamon fem .......................................................... Osmunda cinnamomea
Coastal dog hobble ................................................... Leucothoe axillaris
Common dandelion .................................................. Taraxacum officinale
Common reed ............................................................ Phragmites spp.
Cooley's meadowrue .................................................... Thalictrum cooleyi
Cordgrass ................................................................... Spartina spp.
Cranberry .................................................................... Vaccinium macrocarpon
t~

APPENDIX 3
Cypress ....................................................................... Taxodium spp.
Duckweed .................................................................. Lemma spp.
Eastern hemlock ........................................................ Tsuga canadensis
Fetterbush .................................................................. Lyonia lucida
Flowering dogwood ................................................. Cornus florida
Galax ........................................................................... Galax aphylla
Gallberry .................................................................... Ilex glabra
Giant cordgrass ......................................................... Spartina cynosuroides
Glasswort ................................................................... Salicornla spp.
Golden sedge ................................................................ Carex sp. l
Gray's lily .................................................................... Lilium grayi
Green ash ................................................................... Fraxinus pennsylvanica
Greenbriar .................................................................. Smilax spp.
Holly ........................................................................... Ilex spp.
Horsesugar ................................................................. Symplocos tinctorla
Ironwood .................................................................... Carpinus caroliniana
Laurel oak .................................................................. Quercus laurifolia
Laurel-leaf greenbriar .............................................. Smilax laurifolia
Littleleaf sneezeweed .................................................... Helenium brevifolium
Lizard's tail ................................................................ Saururus cernuus
Loblolly bay ............................................................... Gordonia lasianthus
Loblolly pine .............................................................. Pinus taeda
Longleaf pine ............................................................. Pinus palustris
Marsh elder ................................................................ Iva frutescens
Mountain dog hobble ............................................... Leucothoe recurva
Mountain sweet pitcher plant ..................................... Sarracenla jonesii
Netted chainfern ....................................................... Woodwardia areolata
Northern white beakrush ............................................. Rhynchospora alba
Oak .............................................................................. Quercus spp.
Orange jewelweed/touch-me-not .......................... Impatiens capemsis
Overcup oak .............................................................. Quercus lyrata
Pickerelweed ............................................................. Pontederia cordata
Pin oak ........................................................................ Quercus palustris
Pitcher plant .............................................................. Sarracenla spp.
Poison ivy ................................................................... Toxicodendron radicans
Pond pine ................................................................... Pinus serotina
Pondweed .................................................................. Potamogeton spp.
Queen Anne's lace/wild carrot .............................. Daucus carooa
Red bay ....................................................................... Persea borbonia
Red maple .................................................................. Ater rubrum
Rhododendron .......................................................... Rhododendron spp.
Ribbed bishopweed ....................................................... Ptilimnium costatum
River birch .................................................................. Betula nigra
Rough-leaf loosestrife ................................................... Lysimachia asperulifolla
Royal fem ................................................................... Osmunda regalis
Rush ............................................................................ juncus spp.
Saltgrass ..................................................................... Distichus spicata
114
^

APPENDIX 3
Smooth cordgrass ..................................................... Spartina altern flora
Salt meadow cordgrass ........................................... .Spartina patens
Savanna indigo-bush .................................................. .Amorpha georgiana var.
confusa
Sawgrass .................................................................... .Cladium jamaicense
Sea ox-eye .................................................................. .Borrichia frutescens
Sedge .......................................................................... . Carex spp.
Sensitive fern ............................................................ .Onoclea sensibilis
Silky dogwood ......................................................... .Corpus amomum
Silverling ................................................................... .Baccharis halimifolia
Small-anthered bittercress ........................................... Cardamine micranthera
Smooth sawgrass ......................................................... Cladium mariscoides
Soft-stemmed bulrush ..........................................:.. . Scirpus
Southern twayblade orchid .......................................... Listera australis
Spatterdock ................................................................ Nuphar spp.
Sphagnum moss ....................................................... . Sphagnum spp.
Spikerush .................................................................. .Eleocharis spp.
Spoonflower ................................................................. Peltandra sagittifolia
Swamp chestnut oak ............................................... .Quercus michauxii
Swamp dog hobble ................................................... Leucothoe racemosa
Swamp rose mallow .................................................Hibiscus moscheutos
Swamp rose ...............................................................Rosa palustris
Swamp tupelo ........................................................... Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora
Sweet bay ...................................................................Magnolia virginiana
Sweet pepperbush .................................................... Clethra alnifolia
Sweetgum ..................................................................Liquidambarstyraciflua
Sycamore ....................................:............................... Platanus occidentalis
Tag alder .................................................................... Alnus serrulata
Ti-ti .............................................................................. Cyrilla racem flora
Tuliptree ..................................................................... Liriodendron tulipifera
Venus' flytrap .............................................................. Dionaea muscipula
Virginia chainfern ..................................................... Woodwardia virginica
Virginia pine .............................................................. Pines virginiana
Virginia willow ......................................................... Itea virginica
Water lily .................................................................... Nymphaea odorata
Water parsnip ............................................................ Siam suave
Water shield ............................................................... Brasenia schreberi
Water tupelo .............................................................. Nyssa aquatics
Wax myrtle ................................................................ Myrica cerifera
White oak ....................................:.............................. Quercus albs
White pine .................................................................. Pines strobes
Willow oak ................................................................. Quercus phellos
Willow ........................................................................ Salix spp.
Wire grass .................................................................. Aristida siricta
11

Glossary of Terms
Ability. Characteristics of the wetland which determine, in part, the values
provided by a specific wetland.
Adventitious roots. Roots that occur in an abnormal position, allowing them to get
oxygen. An example is roots growing from aerial stems of wetland plants.
Aerencbyma. Plant tissue with air spaces which allow the diffusion of oxygen to
and through roots.
Aerobic or aerated soil. A condition in which molecular oxygen (02) is present,
either in pores between soil particles or dissolved in water.
Alga (pl. algae). Single-celled, colonial or multi-celled plants without we roots,
stems or leaves. Usually grow in water or damp locations.
Algal bloom. A rapid, uncontrolled multiplication of algae plants that clogs
waterways. Decomposition of dead plants from such blooms depletes oxygen
in waters and can kill large numbers of fish.
Alluvial (soils). Soil that develop from streams or deltas.
Anaerobic soil. A condition in which molecular oxygen (02) is absent.
Aquatic bed plants. Non-woody plants that grow on or below the surface of the
water during most of the year. Occur asfree-floating masses underwater,
floating-leaved masses on the surface or rooted masses on the bottom.
Aquifer. Any water-bearing layer of rock.
Barrier islands. A series of narrow, linear islands along the North Carolina coast.
Basal area. A measurement used by foresters to estimate the amount of board feet
of lumber that could be obtained from a stand of timber.
Buttressed tree trunks. Swelling of the base or extensions from the base of trees
such as black gum which help to stabilize the tree in saturated soil.
Carolina bays. Oval or concentric shallow depressions occuring in the inner
coastal plain, primarily in North and South Carolina. Their long axes are
generally aligned in a northwest to southeast orientation.
Clay. A soil textural class characterized by the predominance of very fine particles
under .002 millimeters in diameter. When moist, clay is plastic (moldable) and
firm.
Concretions. Round or semi-round hard objects formed when dissolved iron or
manganese comes out of solution in the presence of oxygen. Also referred to
as "nodules". Concretions are a redoximorphic feattue of soils.
Deciduous. Plants that lose their leaves once a year, usually in winter. Contrast
with evergreen.
Detritus. In wetlands, fragments of bark, leaves, stems, flowers and other organic
materials.
Embayed sounds. Shallow estuarine bodies of water which were previously
estuaries at the mouths of rivers, but which have been flooded by rising sea
level.
Emergent plants. Aquatic or wetland herbs which are rooted in soil whose stems
and leaves extend above the water surface.
Estuarine, estuary. Areas which are semi-enclosed by land but have open,
partially obstructed or sporadic access to the open ocean. In the estuarine
I1 `
^
1

t
GLOSSARY
system, ocean water is at least occasionally diluted by freshwater run-off or
streamflow. (Cowardin et al. 1979) Estuarine fringe forests, brackish
marshes, salt shrub wetlands and salt marshes are considered estuarine.
Evapotranspiration. The combined loss of water to the atmosphere as evapo-
ration of water from surfaces of plants, soil and water and transpiration of
water vapor from plant leaves and stems.
Evergreen. Plants which retain their leaves throughout the year. Contras[ with
deciduous.
Facultative plant (FAC). Plants which are equally likely to occur in wetlands
or nonwetlands (estimated probability 34 to 66 percent).
Facultative upland plant (FACU). Plants which usually occur in nonwetiands
but are occasionally found in wetlands (estimated probability 1 to 33
percent).
Facultative wetland plant (FACV~. Plants which usually occur in wetlands
(estimated probability 67 to 99 percent).
Fall line. A line of shallow falls and rapids-where streams leave the Piedmont
and enter the flat landscape of the inner coastal plain.
Flooded. A condition when streams overflow their banks and inundate the
surrounding area.
Floodplain. The area along a river which is periodically inundated by overbank
flooding. In the Piedmont, portions of the floodplain may not meet the
definition of wetland used in this guide. This is because they may not be
inundated or saturated long enough to create hydric soils.
Functions. "Ecological, hydrological or other phenomena that contribute to the
self-maintenance of the wetland ecosystem" (Brinson in press). Contrast
with values.
Gleyed soil or gleying. A characteristic of mineral soils in which the predomi-
nant soil color becomes grey due to the reduction, and subsequent removal,
of iron by leaching. Indicates that the soil has been almost continuously
saturated. Gleying is a redoximorphic feature of soils.
Ground water. Water that collects between soil particles and in soil layers
above impervious layers or deep aquifers. Contrast with surface water.
Headwater stream. A small stream that arises in the upper reaches of a
watershed. On a topographic map, a stream channel having no tributaries or
the first joining of streams having no tributaries (fast and second order
streams).
Herbs. Non-woody plants other than vines.
Hummock. A low rounded hill, often covered with sphagnum moss and
generally formed over logs or irregularities in the ground.
Hydric soil. "Soil that is saturated, flooded, or ponded long enough during the
growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part." (SCS
1985)
Hydrologic connection. An obvious surface water connection between a
wetland and a deepwater habitat, usually as stream channel.
Hydrology (of a wetland). The sources of water, degree of soil saturation or
inundation, and pathway of water into and from a wetland.
Hypertrophied lenticels. Enlarged pores for the exchange of gases in stems of
certain plant species.
11~ `

GLOSSARY
Impervious surface. Surfaces where water infiltration is blocked by imperme-
able materials on top of the soil (such as concrete or asphalt).
Inner coastal plain. The physiographic province extending from the fall line to
the Suffolk Scarp which runs through Beaufort, Washington and eastern
Gates Counties.
Interstream divide. An area between streams and floodplains with no obvious
stream channels.
Inundation. A condition occurring when water pools above the surface of the
ground.
Knee (cypress). A woody, knobby- orcone-shaped projection growing upward
from the roots of cypress. Knees are believed to stabilize the trees in
saturated soils.
Larva (pl. larvae). Immature forms of certain animals which change structur-
ally when they become adults. The larvae of salamanders, frogs, toads and
many insects develop in bodies of water.
Litter. In this context, the layer of dead and partially decayed leaves, twigs and
blossoms on the surface of the soil.
Lunar tide. Tides created by the gravitational attraction of the moon. In North
Carolina, two high fides and two low fides occur approximately every 24-
hour period.
Marl. Basic impervious rock that creates ground water with near neutral pH.
When broken down, marl yields a crumbly soil consisting mainly of clay,
sand and calcium carbonate.
Mast. Nuts such as acorns, beechnuts or chestnuts.
Mineral soil. Soil which contains relatively little organic material, from a trace
up to 18 percent, in its upper 16 inches (40 centimeters). Mineral soils
consist of mineral materials, organic matter, air and water (Brady 1974).
Mottled soil or mottling. A characteristic of mineral soils in which the soil
color consists of a predominant wlor (the matrix) interrupted by spots or
blotches of contrasting color. Generally an indication that the soil has been
alternately saturated and aerated. Mottling is a redoximorphic feature of
soils.
Mountains. The physiographic province of North Carolina which contains
mountain ranges. It is generally characterized by highly irregular topogra-
phy and steep slopes.
Muck. Organic material in soil in which the plant materials have been broken
down so as to be unrecognizable.
Nontidal. Estuarine areas which do not receive lunar tides.
Obligate upland plant (UPL). Plants which almost always occtu in uplands in
ttus region (estimated probability greater than 99 percent), but which occur
in wetlands in another region.
Obligate wetland plant (OBL). Plants which almost always occur in wetlands
(estimated probability greater than 99 percent).
Opportunity. Characteristics of the watershed or area surrounding a wetland
which determine, in part, the values provided by a specific wetland.
Contrast with ability.
Organic soil. Soil which is primarily composed of organic matter in its upper 16

1
GLOSSARY
inches (40 centimeters). Belonging to the class of soils designated
"histosols."
Outer coastal plain. The physiographic province of North Cazolina which
extends from all azeas above mean sea level to the Suffolk Scarp running
through Beaufort, Washington and eastern Gates Counties and including
estuarine areas along the southern coast.
Oxidized form (of chemicals). The form of chemical elements or ions in which
oxygen is attached, the negative charge is reduced or the positive charge is
increased. Often formed by microorganisms under aerobic wnditions. In
aerated wetlands, manganese, iron, and sometimes sulfur may become
oxidized. Contrast with reduced form (of chemicals).
Oxidized rhizospheres. Rust-colored root channels which sometimes occur
along roots growing through gleyed soils. An indicator that soils have been
saturated. The Soil Conservation Service refers to these as iron pore
linings.
Peat. Organic material in soil in which the fragments of the orginal plant
materials are evident.
Perched water table. Shallow lens-shaped bodies of ground water that are
isolated from deeper aqufiers by impervious layers of soil or rock.
Piedmont. The area of North Carolina from the mountains to the fall line.
Pneumatophores. Special respiratory organs chazcteristic of such wetland
plants as tupelo gum. From "pneuma" which means to breathe.
Pollutant. A harmful chemical or waste material discharged into the water or
atmosphere.
Polymorphic leaves. Leaves which take different forms depending upon the
conditions when they were formed. Literally means "many shapes".
Characteristic of wetland plants such as some arrowhead species.
Province. An area of the state based on physiographic characteristics. This
guide uses five provinces but other combinations are possible.
Pulpwood. Smaller or less valuable trees that, upon harvesting, are likely to be
converted to pulp for the production of paper and wood products. Contrast
with sawtimber.
Rare species. A species which appears on Federal or state lists as endangered,
threatened or of special concern.
Redoximorphic features (of soils). Soil features formed by the removal or
accumulation of iron and manganese. They include concretions, soft iron
masses, oxidized rhizospheres, and gleying or mottling. These features
form in soils that have been saturated or inundated and have become
anaerobic, causing reduction of chemicals.
Reduced form (of chemicals). The form of chemical elements or ions in which
oxygen is removed, the negative charge is increased or the positive charge
is decreased. Often formed by microorganisms under anaerobic conditions.
In saturated wetlands, manganese, iron, and sometimes sulfur may become
reduced. Contrast with oxidized form (of chemicals).
Riparian wetlands. Wetlands which occur along the banks of rivers which are
primarily sustained by overbank flooding and by surface and ground water
flow parallel to the stream. Bottomland hardwood forests and swamp
forests are riparian wetlands.

GLOSSARY
Runoff. Surface water which moves across the surface of the ground in sheet
form rather than in distinct channels.
Sand. A soil textural class characterized by the predominance of gritty particles
(predominantly quartz). The soil particles are larger than silt, generally with
diameters of 0.05 to 2.0 millimeters.
Sandhills. The physiographic province of North Carolina in the southeastern
coastal plain consisting of rolling sand dunes and interdune depressions.
Saturated soil. A condition in which most pores between soil particles are filled
with water and water will flow from the soil into large holes, ditches or
drainageways.
Sawtimber. Larger, more valuable trees that, upon harvesting, are likely to be
converted to timber and boards. Contrast with pulpwood.
Shrubs. Woody plants, including young trees, whose height is less than 20 feet.
Silt. A-soil textural class characterized by the predominance of fine particles
which are similar to sand but much smaller. Silt particles are larger than
clay particles, with diameters of 0.002 to 0.05 millimeters.
Snag. A standing dead tree with a diameter of more than ten inches, that
provides habitat for wildlife.
Soil texture. The relative proportions of sand, silt and clay in a portion of the
soil.
Storm surge. An abnormally high tide created by violent storms at sea.
Sucker. A shoot springing from the roots or stem of a plant.
Surface water. Water travelling over the surface of the ground as runoff,
streamflow or overbank flooding. Contrast with ground water.
Tidal creek. Small stream channels dissecting salt or brackish marshes which
conduct tidal flow inland and streamflow to the sea.
Tidal. Within the influence of lunar tides.
Toxicants. Any substance present in water, wastewater or runoff that may kill
aquatic life or be harmful to public health.
Trees. Woody plants whose height is greater than 20 feet.
Values. "Something worthy, desirable, or useful to humans" (Mitsch and
Gosselink 1993). Wetland values are frequently identified and protected by
law.
Vines. Non-woody or woody plants whose young stems are long, slender and
flexible, which grow trailing on the ground, climbing or twining.
Waterfowl. Buds such as swans, geese, diving ducks, tipping ducks and
dabbling ducks.
Water table. The top of the zone in soil that is saturated with water. It is equal
to the level that water will reach after it flows into a soil auger hole or ditch.
The depth to the water table in a soil is not constant, but changes in re-
sponse to rainfall and drainage of water.
Wetlands. Various definitions. "Those areas which are inundated or saturated
by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support,
and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation
typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions" (Corps of Engineers
1987).
Wind tide. A tide caused by winds out at sea which enters estuarine waters in
no discernible pattern.
1211

^
1
Selected Bibliography
Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine Study (APES). 1989. Fringe wetlands in
Albemarle and Pamlico sounds: landscape position, fringe swamp structure,
and response to rising sea level. Project No. 88-14. By Mark M. Brinson.
Raleigh: North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community
Development.
Beyer, Fred. 1991. North Carolina: the years before man. A geologic history.
Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press.
Biggs, Walter C., Jr., and James F. Parnell. 1989. State parks of North Carolina.
Winston-Salem, N.C.: John F. Blair.
Brady, Nyle C. 1974. The nature and properties of soils. 8th Edition. New
York: Macmillan.
Braswell, Alvin. 1993. Interview by Annette Liggett. Raleigh, North Carolina.
30 August.
Brinson, Msrk M. (in press) Changes in the functioning of wetlands along
environmental gradients. Wetlands 13. Quoted in Mark R. Wallbridge, Func-
tions and values of forested wetlands in the southern United States. Journal of
Forestry 91(5): 15.
. 1993. Changes in the functioning of wetlands along environmental
gradients. Wetlands 13 (2): 65-70.
Corps of Engineers. 1987. Corps of Engineers wetlands delineation manual.
Technical Report Y-87-1. Vicksburg, MI: United States Department of the
Army.
Cowardin, Lewis M., Virginia Carter, Francis C. Golet, and Edward T. Lance.
1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States.
FWS/OBS-79/31 Washington, D.C.: Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. DepaR-
ment of the Interior. December.
Division of Environmental Management (DEM). 1991. Original extent, status
and trends of wetlands in North Carolina: a report to the N.C. Legislative Study
Commission on Wetlands Protection. Report No. 91-01. Raleigh: North
Carolina Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources. January.
. 1992. Interim guu~iance for wetlands protection. Report No. 92-03.
Raleigh: North Carolina Department of Environment, Health and Natural
Resources. May.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
. 1993. Indicators of freshwater wetland function and value for protection
and management. Report No. 93-O1. Raleigh: North Carolina Department of
Environment, Health and Natural Resources. May.
. 1994.Water quality progress in North Carolina: 1992-1993 305(6)
report. Report No. 94-06. Raleigh: North Cazolina Department of Environment,
Health and Natural Resources.
Forest Resources Division (FRD). 1990. Best management practices for forestry
in the wetlands of North Carolina. Raleigh: North Carolina Department of
Environment, Health, and Natural Resources.
Godfrey, Michael A. 1980. A Sierra Club naturalist's guide: the Piedmont. San
Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
Kuenzler, Edward J. 1987. Impacts of sewage effluent on tree survival, water
quality and nutrient removal in coastal plain swamps. Report No. 235. Chapel
Hill: Water Resources Research Institute, University of North Carolina.
Mitsch, William J. and James G. Gosselink. 1993.Wetlands. 2nd edition. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company:
Moorhead, Kevin K., Irene R. Mackun, C. Reed Rossell, Jr., and James W.
Petranka. November 19, 1993. Restoring Wetlands for a Mitigation Bank for
Surface Transportation Projects in North Cazolina. Grant Proposal to the Center
for Transportation and the Environment.
Mansell Soil Color Charts (Mansell). 1992. Revised edition. New York:
Macbeth.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1985, Climates of the States.
3rd edition. Vol. 2: New York-Wyoming. Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research
Company.
North Carolina Geological Survey. 1991. Generalized geologic map of North
Carolina. Raleigh.
North Cazolina Natural Heritage Program (NHP). 1990. Classification of the
natural communities of North Carolina: third approximation. By Michael P.
Schafale and Alan S. Weakley. Raleigh: Division of Parks and Recreation, North
Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources.
. 1993. Biennial protection plan, 1993. Raleigh: Division of Parks and
Recreation, North Carolina Department of Environment, Health and Natural
Resources.

1
BIBLIOGRAPHY
. July 1993. Natural areas database. Raleigh: Division of Parks and
Recreation, North Carolina Department of Environment, Health and Natural
Resources.
Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles and C. Ritchie Bell. 1968. Manual of the
vascular flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Reed, P.B., Jr. 1988. National List of Plant Species That Occur in Wetlands:
North Carolina. Biological Report NERC-88/1833. Washington, D.C.: Fish and
Wildlife Service.
Richardson, Curtis J. and J. Whitfield Gibbons. 1993. Pocosins, Carolina Bays,
and Mountain Bogs. In Biodiversity of the southeastern United States: lowland
terrestrial communities. edited by WIlliam H. Martin, Steven G. Boyce and
Arthur C. Echternacht. New York: Wiley.
Rce, Charles E. 1987. A directory to North Carolina's natural areas. Raleigh:
North Carolina Natural Heritage Foundation.
Soil Conservation Service (SCS). 1985. Hydric soils of the United States. Na-
tional Bulletin No. 430-5-9. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of
Agriculture.
Tiner, Ralph W. 1988. Field guide to nontidal wetland identification. Baltimore:
Maryland Department of Natural Resources.
Tiner, Ralph W. and Peter L.M. Veneman. 1989. Hydric soils of New England.
Revised Bulletin C-183R. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Cooperative
Extension.
Trimble, Stanley W. 1973. A geographic analysis of erosive land use on the
southern Piedmont. Ph.D. diss., University of Georgia. Quoted in Wade L.Nutter,
Review of Wetland Hydrology in the Southeastern U.S. Piedmont Province. Paper
read at Environmental Protection Agency meeting, March 1993, at Atlanta,
Georgia.
Vepraskas, Michael J. 1992. Redoximorphic features for identifying aquic
conditions. Technical Bulletin 301. Raleigh: North Carolina Agricultural Re-
search Service.
123

i
i
f
i

f
INDEX
Definitions to technical terms are found in the
glossary, which is not indexed here.
ability 18
adventitious roots 12, 15
air-filled stems 12, 15
algal blooms 20
Alligator River National Wildlife
Refuge 48, 52, 88
amount of wetlands 1
amphibian breeding in wetlands 54,
58, 62, 65
anaerobic conditions 7-8
formation of, 8
aquatic bed plants 12
aquatic habitat in wetlands 25, 26
Atlantic white cedar 51, 78
bald cypress 14, 72, 77, 78
barrier islands 37
B. Everett Jordan Lake. See Jordan
Lake, B. Everett.
blackwater stream 71
Black River swamp forest 78, 80
Bladen Lakes State Forest 69
Blue Ridge Parkway 63
bog forests 60, 64-66
bottomland hardwood forests 70-72,
73-76
brackish marshes 89
brownwater stream 71
buttresses 12, 15
INDEX
Cape Hatteras National Seashore 93
Carolina Beach State Park 91
Carolina bays 36
Cedar Island National Wildlife
Refuge 91, 96
channelizing and piping streams 100,
104
clay 11
and formation of wetlands 42, 56
Coastal Plain
conversion of wetlands in, 1
(see also Inner Coastal Plain;
Outer Coastal Plain)
concretions 10
conversion of wetlands 1, 99-101
Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army 112,
114
Croatan National Forest 48, 52, 69, 91,
93, 96
cypress savanna 54
definition of wetlands 3-4
no single, 4
delineation of wetlands 112, 114, 126
distribution of wetlands 1
ditching wetlands 100
Division of Environmental Manage-
ment, North Carolinh 114

INDEX
Duke Forest 59
education about wetlands 2, 28-29, 113
emergent plants 12
ephemeral wetlands 42-43, 53-55
estuarine fringe forests 87-88
estuarine wetlands 85-86
evapotranspiration 5
exceptional wetlands 27
as special ecological attributes 26
Black River swamp forest 80
filling wetlands 99
fire and wetlands ecology 43, 44-45,
47-48, 88
floodplain formation 70, 102-103
floating leaves 12, 15
flooding 5
forestry. See timber production.
Fort Fisher State Recreation Area 93,
96
Fort Macon State Park 96
404/401 programs. See regulatory
programs.
freshwater marshes 81-84
freshwater wetlands 33, 37
functions 17
gleying 9, 11
Goose Creek State Park 84, 91
Gosselink, James G. 112
granite and silica~ontaining rocks 35
greenish, gray or black soi19
ground water 5
acidity of, in mountains 35

as source for wetlands 56
changes in watersheds 103
Hammocks Beach State Park 96
Haw RiverfI'roublesome Creek azea 84
Hemlock Bluffs Nature Preserve 55
herbs 12
Holly Shelter Game Land 48, 52
high elevation seep 58
hunting: on public lands 28; leases
30-31
hydric soil 7
hydrogen sulfide
see sulfur
hydrology 4
importance of, 4
indicators of, 7
seasonal fluctuations in, 6
difficulty in recognizing, 7
examining, 7
impacts to wetlands. See Conversion of ~
wetlands; Modifying watersheds. ~
indicator status of plants 13-14 ~I
Inner Coastal Plain 36-37, 44, 50
interbasin transfer of water 104
inundation 5
levels of, 6
iron
reduction of, 9
toxicity of, 12, 13
Jordan Lake, B. Everett 76, 80
Julian Price Recreational Area 63
key to types 39-42

I
r

a
i
knees 12, 15
Lake Crabtree County Park 84
Lake Waccamaw State Park 76
longleaf pine 43, 44, 45
MacKay Island National Wildlife
Refuge 84
mafic depression (upland depression
swamp forest) 54
manganese
reduction of, 10
toxicity of, 12, 13
Mason Farm Biological Reserve 55
Merchants Millpond State Park 80
methane 10
mineral soils 9, 11
mining in wetlands 99
Mitsch, William J. 112
modifying watersheds 102-103
Morrow Mountain State Park 55
mottling 9
mountain bogs 60, 61-63
Mountains
conversion of wetlands in, 1
description of, 34-35
muck 8, 11
Munsell charts 9
Nantahala National Forest 63, 66, 84
National Wetlands Inventory 33
Natural Heritage Program 108-110,
112, 113
natural lakes 70-71
natural levees 71, 74

INDEX
Natural Resources Conservation
Service 7, 11, 114
nitrogen removal by wetlands 21-22
non-native plants, introduction of 101
Nutter, Wade 102
opportunity 18
organic soils 8, 11
Outer Coastal Plain 37, 44, 50
overbank flooding 5
patterns 5
Pea Island National Wildlife Refuge
91, 93, 96
peat 8,11
domes 98
Pee Dee National Wildlife Refuge 76,
80
Pettigrew Park and Lake Phelps 80
(see also Pocosin Lakes National
Wildlife Refuge).
phosphorus removal by wetlands 20-
22
physiographic provinces 34-37
Pisgah National Forest 63, 66
Piedmont 35
pine savanna
see wet pine savanna
plant(s)
adaptations 11-13
forms 15
Pocosin Lakes National Wildlife
Refuge 84 (see also Pettigrew
Park and Lake Phelps).

INDEX
pocosins SO-52 sandhills 36-37, 44, 48
pollutant removal by wetlands 20-23 Sandhills Game Land 59, 69
pond pine 43, 44 saturation 5
polymorphic leaves 12, 15 levels of, 6
precipitation 4, 47 sea level, changes in 104
productivity of estuarine wetlands 86 sediments: filtering of, 20-23; depos-
rare or endangered species ited in streams 102
as special ecological attributes shoreline stabilization 19-20
26 short pocosin. See pocosin.
in wetland types 47, 62, 65 shrubs 12
rare wetland types silt 11
as special ecological attributes special ecological attributes 26-27, 105
26, 27 (see also specific wetland types).
not included in types 40 stability of wetland systems 99
recreation in wetlands 28-29 streamflow 5
red spruce bog forest 65 stormwater treatment by wetlands 101
redoximorphic features 9 succession in wetlands 98-99
regulatory programs 105, 106 Suffolk scalp 36-37
reservoirs 70, 71, 104 sulfur
restoration of degraded wetlands 105 reduction of, 10
Roanoke River National Wildlife toxicity of, 13
Refuge 76, 80 surface water 5
root(s) swamp tupelo 72, 77
and anaerobic wnditions 12 Swanquarter National Wildlife Refuge
channels 11 88
shallow 15 Theordore Roosevelt Natural Area 88
runoff 5, 102, 103 tidal freshwater marshes 82 (see also
salt marshes 94-96 MacKay Island National Wildlife
salt shrub wetlands 92-93 Refuge)
saltwater tall pocosin. See pocosin.
toxicity of, 13 tides 5
sand 11 timber production 29-30

INDEX
management of, 29-30
estimating, 30
in wetlands, 47
Tiner, Ralph 112
trees 12
values 17-18
vines 12
Uwharrie National Forest 55, 59
wastewater treatment by wetlands 101
water quality and wetlands 20-23, 32
(see also specific wetland types).
water storage 19-20
water tupelo 72, 77
wet flats 44-48
wet pine savanna44-48
wet pine flats 448
Wet hardwood flats 47
wildlife habitat 23-24, 32, 104. (see
also specific wetland types).
willow oak 72, 77