HomeMy WebLinkAboutExisting Conditions ReportDCISTING CONDITIONS REPORT
NORTH SHORE ROAD
ENVIRONM ENTAL IM PACT STATEM ENT
SUVAIN COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA
January 2004
6dsting Conditions laeport
North 5�ore F�ad
Environmental Impact
Statement
9�vain County, North Carolina
Contract No. DTFH71-02-D-00004
Task Order 0002
Reparedfor.
National Park Service and
Federal HighwayAdministration
Repared by:
ARCADISG&M of North Carolina, Inc.
801 Corporate Center Drive
.Slaite 300
Raleigh
North Carolina 27607
Tel 919 854 1282
Fax 919 854 5448
Our Ref.:
NC603001.0000
Date:
January 2004
1. Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Report Purpose
StudyArea Description
Project Purpose and Need and the 1943 Agreement
North Shore f�ad History
Great 9rioky MountainsNational Park History
2. F�cisting Roadway and TrafficConditions
2.1 Roadway and Trail Conditions
2.1.1 Rc�adways
2.12 G�/1NPTrailsand Old Roadbeds
2.1.3 Tunnel and Bridge Conditions
2.2 F�cisting Traffic Conditions
22.1 9�rstem Linkage
2.22 Transportation Plans
2.2.3 HistoricTrafficGrowth
2.2.4 2003Traffic9urveys
2.2.5 Rpadway Capaaty
2.2.6 �eed 3udy
2.3 Acadent Analysis
2.3.1 Conclusion
3. 6cisting Environmental Conditions
3.1 Land Use (Existing and Future)
3.1.1 Great 9�noky MountainsNational Park
3.12 Nantahala National Forest
3.1.3 9rvain County
3.1.4 Graham County
1
1
1
2
2
3
4
4
4
7
8
11
11
12
13
14
15
19
20
25
26
26
26
28
30
30
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.1.5 Bryson City
3.1.6 Tennessee Valley Authority
Soaoeconomicand Community Features
32.1 Demographic Profile of the Project Study Area
3.2.2 Environmental Justice
32.3 Community and Social Features
3.2.4 Economy and Employment
Cultural Resources
3.3.1 Archaeological9tes
3.3.2 HistoricStructuresand OtherAboveground Resources
3.3.3 Cemeteries
3.3.4 Traditional Cultural Properties
3.3.5 Other Cultural Resources
3.3.6 SL m m ary
Parklandsand Rea-eational Faalities
3.4.1 Great 9rioky MountainsNational Park
3.4.2 Appalachian National �cenicTrail
3.4.3 Nantahala National Forest
3.4.4 Other 3udyArea Parksand Recreational Faalities
Topography, Geology, and Soils
3.5.1 Topography
3.5.2 Regional Geology
3.5.3 Local Geology
3.5.4 Mineral Resources
3.5.5 3ructural Geology
3.5.6 General Geotechnical and Geologic Desgn Consderations
3.5.7 Soils
30
32
35
35
47
52
56
60
61
64
67
69
70
71
71
72
75
76
76
78
78
78
79
84
85
86
90
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
�
3.6 Water Resources
3.6.1 �rface Waters
3.62 Wild and �enicf3vers
3.6.3 Water Quality
3.6.4 Sole Source Aquifiers
3.6.5 Wellhead Protection Program
3.6.6 Groundwater Recharge Areas
3.7 Wetlands
3.7.1 Regulatory Requirements
3.7.2 Mitigation
3.7.3 Wetlandsin the Project StudyArea
3.7.4 Navigable Waters
3.8 Roodplains
3.9 Biological Resources
3.9.1 Vegetative Communities
3.9.2 Terrestrial Wildlife
3.9.3 Aquatic Wildlife
3.9.4 Invasve Exotic�ecies
3.9.5 Protected �ecies
3.10 Aestheticsand Viewsheds
3.10.1 �cenic Byways
3.11 Air Quality
3.11.1 Regulatory 3atus
3.11.2The C�ean Air Ad and Class 1 Areas
3.12 Noise
3.12.1 Characteristicsof Noise
3.12.2 Noise Abatement Criteria
94
94
98
99
110
110
110
111
111
113
114
116
116
117
117
130
143
146
147
169
171
171
171
173
174
174
179
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
�
3.12.3 Ambient Noise Levels
3.12.4 SLmmary
3.13 HazardousMaterial and Waste 5tes
3.14 Utilities
3.14.1 G3V1 N P
3.14.2 TVA'sFontana Reservoir
3.14.3 Remaining 3udyArea Utilities
3.15 Public Projects in the Vianity of the Study Area
3.15.1 NCDOTTransportation Improvement Program Projects
3.15.2 Thoroughfare Plans
3.15.3 G�VI NP Projects
3.15.4 Wilderness Desgnation
3.15.5 Fontana Dam Project
3.16 Private In-Holdings
4. References
Tables
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Primary Bridgesand Q.ilvertson State Routes
3ructuresWithin Great 9noky MountainsNational Park 3udyArea
Intersection Level of Service—Unsignalized (Year 2003)
Intersection Level of Service-9gnalized (Year 2003)
Mainline Levelsof Service (2003)
�eed Study (2003)
Intersection Accident Data (Fall 1999 through Fall 2002)
Mainline Accident Data (Fall 1999 through Fall 2002)
Corridor Acadent Rates
Intersection Acadent Rates
180
180
181
186
186
186
187
187
188
188
189
191
191
191
193
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
iv
11 1990-2000 Population Growth for State, County, Place, CensusTract, and
Blodc Group
12 Ethniaty and Race by 3ate, County, Place, CensusTract, and Block Group for
1990
13 Ethnidty and Race by State, County, Place, CensusTract, and Blodc Group for
2000
14 Income Levelsand Poverty �tatusfor Householdsin the Study Region for 1999
15 Housing Unitsfor 2000
16 Housng Tenure for 2000
17 Housing Values(Owner-Oca.apied) for 2000
18 Population Change Between 1900 and 2000
19 Workforce by Industry
20 Largest Manufacturersin Graham and 9✓vain Counties
21 Fontana Lake Classfication of Designated Use and NCDWQ 3ream Index
Number, Graham and 9✓vain Counties, North Carolina
22 �ream Segmentson the National F�verslnventory Within the Project 9udy
Area
23 National Pbllutant Discharge �imination 9,istem (NPDES� Permit Holders
Within the Project Study Area
24 �Lmmary of Hazel Creek Water Quality Data, �mpling from 1994-2002
25 Comparison of Selected Water Quality Parametersfor Fontana and Hazel
Cxeek Mines
26 Area and Description of NWI Mapped Wetlandsand Deepwater Habitat
Within the R-oject Study Area
27 CXoss-Reference of Vegetative Communities Found Within the Project Study
Area
28 Federally Protected �eaesKnown from Graham and 9✓vain Counties, North
Carolina
29 Federal �eaesof Concern Known from Graham and 9�vain Counties, North
Carolina
30 3ate �eaesof Concern Known from 9nrain and Graham Counties, North
Carolina
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
v
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Fgures
1
2
3A
3B
4A
46
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
�ement Occurrencesof Protected, Endangered, Threatened, and Sensitive
(PEfS) �eaes in Graham and/or 9,vain County, North Carolina
NAAQSand Monitored Concentrationsfor Criteria Pollutants
Dominating Noise 5ources(30-Minute Reading Sites)
Dominating Noise 5�urces(24 Hour Reading 9tes)
Typical Human Hearing Levels
Noise Abatement Criteria
HazardousMaterial and Waste 9tes Identified by EDR
HazardousMaterial Waste Sftes(Orphan Sftes)
General Vicinity Map
Great 9�noky MountainsNational Park Trails, Old f�adbedsand Railroad Beds
Proposed Roadway Improvements
Proposed Ftoadway Improvements
Traffic Data and Capacity Analyss— Intersection Reference Map
Traffic Data and Capacity Analyss— Intersection Peak Hour Volumes
Land Use
General Management Plan (GMP) Proposed Management Zoning
Census Boundaries
Study Area Development
Major Employers
Recreational Amenitiesand Facilities
Mineral Resourcesand Geology
Soil Assoaations
Water Resources
Wetlands
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
vi
15 Roodplains
16 Terrestrial and Aquatic Habitats—General CategoriesVegetation Map
17A Terrestrial and Aquatic Habitats—National Park Service (NPS) Vegetation
Map
176 Terrestrial and Aquatic Habitats—United �tatesForest Service (U�FS)
Vegetation Map
17C Terrestrial and Aquatic Habitats—North Carolina Center for Geographic
Information and Analysis(NCCGIA) Vegetation Map
18 Pbtential Threatened and Endangered �ecies Habitats
19 Ambient Noise Levels
20 HazardousWas#e 9tes
21 Utilities
22 R-ivate In-Holdings
Appendices
A Memorandum of Agreement of October 8, 1943
B 3ream Classifications
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
vi i
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
1. Introduction
1.1 Report Purpose
The purpose of this report is to document the existing conditions of the study area, including
the cultural, natural, and human aspects of the environment. Other existing conditions
include the transportation network, air quality, ambient noise levels, and hazardous material
and waste sites. A summary of this report will be used in the Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS). This report will provide the groundwork for developing alternatives and
analyzing the anticipated impacts. Data for the report were collected by researching
applicable literature and websites, conducting interviews with local authorities and field
specialists, reviewing historical information relating to the project, performing site
inspections of the study area, and reviewing public comments.
1.2 Study Area Desa-iption
Fontana Lake
The study area, shown in Figure 1, is in western North
Carolina, in portions of Swain and Grabam counties. It
extends from just west of Fontana Village to the eastern
municipal limits of Btyson City, covering an area of
roughly 120,000 acres (48,562 hectares [ha]). Fontana
Lake divides the study area into halves to include land
south and nortb of the lake. The southern limits of the
study area parallel just south of NC 28 and US 19/US 74
while the northern limits follow an arc that includes the
majority of land transferred in the October 8, ] 943,
Memorandum of Agreement (1943 Agreement). The
1943 Agreement, included in Appendix A, is explained
in more detail in Section l.3 of this report.
In arder to provide the full range of study alternatives
and thorough analyses that are required by the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the EIS study area
covers a large expanse of land. Specifically, the inclusion of land south of Fontana Lake is
necessary to evaluate the existing roadway network, the area's transportation needs, and
potential access options across Fontana Lake. The inclusion of rural communities such as
Lauada, Almond, and Stecoah, as well as Bryson City, to name just a few, provides insight on
the local population's economy, demographics, and social values.
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
1.3 Project Purpose and Need and the 1943 Agreement
The purpose of the proposed action is to discharge and sa�isfy any obligations on the part of
the United States that presently exist as the result of the ] 943 Agreement between the United
States Department of the Interior (DOI), the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), Swain
County, North Carolina, and the state of North Carolina. The 1943 Agreement dealt with the
creation of Fontana Dam and Reservoir that caused the flooding of lands and roads within
Swain County. As part of the Agreement, 44,170 acres (17,875 ha) of land were ultimately
transferred to the DOI and made part of Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP).
The 1943 Agreement contained a provision by which the DOI was to construct a road
through GSMNP, along the north shore of the newly formed Fontana Lake (generally located
between Fontana Dam and Bryson City, North Carolina), to replace the flooded NC 288. The
1943 Agreement also called for the state of North Carolina to construct a road from Bryson
Ciry to the GSMNP boundary. This was completed in 1959.
Approximately 7.2 miles (11.5 kilometers [km]) of the originally proposed North Shore Road
have been constructed within GSMNP, with the last segment being completed in the 1970s.
The need of the project is to determine whether or not it is feasible to complete the road and
to evaluate other alternatives that would satisfy the obligation. Both build (i.e., road or other
facilities) and no-build alternatives will be developed to determine how the 1943 obligation
will be met.
1.4 North Shore Road History
Construction of North Shore Road began in 1947 with roughly 7.2 miles (11.5 km)
completed (1 mile [1.6 km] on the Fontana Dam side of GSMNP and 6.2 miles [10 km] on
the Bryson City side of GSMNP). Due to environmental concerns and funding issues, the
project ended in 1972 after completion of a tunnel on the Bryson City side of GSMNP.
Today, the two completed segments of North Shore Road are known as Lake View Road
(also known as Lakeview Drive).
In October 2000, Congress budgeted $16 million of U.S. Department of Transportation
appropriations to resume construction of the North Shore Road. Because the road would be
constructed on federal land with federal money, NEPA required the federal agencies involved
in the project — the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the National Park Service
(NPS) — to prepare an EIS.
The North Share Road project has a long and contested history, spanning nearly six decades.
Advocates far the road maintain that the government has an obligation to uphold its part of
the 1943 Agreement as a matter of principle and credibility. Families that lived along the
north shore of the Little Tennessee River prior to the flooding of the river and the transfer of
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
land to GSMNP, feel tbat the road would allow access to old home sites and family
cemeteries. Other proponents believe the road would provide economic benefits to Swain
Counry in the form of increased tourism. Local and national environmental groups oppose
the road because they contend that construction and use of the road would harm both
terrestrial and aquatic species. Others support a cash settlement in lieu of the road to boost
Swain Counry's economy.
1.5 Great &noky M ountains National Park History
The NPS was created on August 15, 1916. Prior to this date, the DOI had been responsible
for 14 national parks; however, there was no designated management. In an effort to rectify
this, President Woodrow Wilson approved legislation to create the NPS. Today the NPS is
responsible for 388 parks (http://www.cr.nps.gov/history nps.htm 2003).
Although they were not the first to recognize the importance of protecting the southem
Appalachians, Mr. and Mrs. Willis P. Davis started the movement in 1923 that ultimately led
to the creation of GSMNP ("Great Smoky Mountains, The Story Behind the Scenery" 1998).
Congress passed a bill authorizing the establishment of a national park in the Great Smoky
Mountains in 1926. The bill gave North Carolina and Tennessee the responsibility of
purchasing the land needed for the park (NPS No date). During the ] 920s and 1930s, North
Carolina and Tennessee purchased approximately 1,100 tracis ofprivate land and on June l5,
1934, GSMNP was designated as a national park (http://www.nps.gov/grsm 2003). Including
the lands transferred with the 1943 Agreement, the park totals approximately 521,000 acres
(210,842 ha), making it "the largest federally protected upland landmass east of the
Mississippi River" (http://data2.itc. nps.gov/nature/index.cfm?alphacode=grsm 2003). Tbe
GSMNPSgn
park was recognized by the United
Nations as an International
Biosphere Reserve in 1976 and as
a World Heritage Site in 1983.
More information on these
designations is included in Section
3.1.1.
In an effort to reduce
unemployment during the
Depression, the Civilian
Conservation Corps (CCC) was
created in 1933 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal programs. The CCC
was responsible for conservation, rehabilitation, and construction projects in both tbe national
and state parks. In GSMNP, tbe CCC had 22 camps (permanent and temporary). From these
camps, the CCC built some of the hiking trails and roads, as well as other facilities in
GSMNP. Details on recreational facilities in GSMNP are included in Section 3.4 of this
report.
2. F�cisting Roadway and TrafficConditions
2.1 I�adway and Trail Conditions
This section summarizes an evaluation of existing roadway and trail conditions within the
study area. The primary transportation network between Bryson City and Fontana Dam
includes NC 28, US 19, and US 74.
2.1.1 Roadways
2.1.1.1 South of Fontana Lake
The primary east-west roadways south
of Fontana Lake are US 19, US 74,
and NC 28 as shown on Figure 1.
These routes connect various
secondary roads to regions outside the
study area. The Statewide Planning
Branch of the North Carolina
Department of Transportation
(NCDOT) records the functional
classification of US 19 as a"major
collector" and both US 74 and NC 28
as "principal arterials."
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
NC 28
US 19 is a two-lane facility that goes through downtown Bryson City before merging with
US 74 southwest of town. The travel lanes are 12 feet (3.6 meters [m]) wide, and the overall
pavement condition is fair with moderate to severe transverse cracking and occasional areas
of patching. The shoulders are well maintained and range from 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 m)
wide. Roadside ditches are relatively narrow and often within 4 feet (1.2 m) of the travel lane
edge. US 19 does not have control of access. There are a few locations where stopping sight
distance may be below current NCDOT roadway design standards due to substandard
horizontal or vertical curvature.
Beginning southwest of Bryson Ciry, at the merge point of US 19 and US 74, US 19/US 74 is
a four-lane divided facility with a grass median, which transitions to a five-lane undivided
section west of the Little Tennessee River. There is no control of access west of the US 19
interchange with US 74 near Mallard Road, although driveways and intersections are
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
infrequent. The travel lanes are 12 feet (3.6 m) wide, and the overall pavement condition is
good with very little transverse cracking. The shoulders and roadside ditches are wide and
very well maintained.
Although overall a north-south route, NC 28 runs east-west through the study area. Within
the study area, NC 28 was a secondary road priar to being added to the state numbered
highway system in two sections in 1951 and 1954. Today, NC 28 merges with US ] 9/LTS 74
at the community of Lauada in Swain County and continues to approximately 2.2 miles (3.5
km) southwest of the Little Tennessee River where it diverges from US 19/LTS 74. It
continues west as a divided four-lane highway in Graham County to SR 1231 (Tobacco
Branch Road) and then transitions to two lanes. The NCDOT is currently widening NC 28 to
a four-lane facility from SR 1231 to its intersection with NC l43 (Transportation
Improvement Project (TIP) Number A-9). See Figures 3A and 3B. West of NC 143, NC 28
is an undivided two-lane faciliry with 12-foot (3.6 m) wide travel lanes. The pavement
condition ranges from fair to good. The shoulders are generally narrow and occasionally
steep. At some locations vertical rock slopes are within ] 0 feet (3 m) of the travel lane, steep
fill slopes are within the clear recovery zone, and guardrail is absent. Tl�e section of NC 28 in
Graham County has sharp curves and steep grades.
In the study area, NC 28 extends from US 19/US74 in Swain County to Lake Cheoah in
Grahain Counry. There is no record of NC 28 in this area prior to 1947. In 1947, a 16-foot
(4.9-m) wide section of roadway was paved from US ] 9 to just west of Wolf Creelc, and in
1951 the paving was extended to just east of Sawyer Creek. In 1954, these two sections of
roadway were added to the NC 28 system.
In the period between 1954 and 1963, a number of improvements, which included a
significant amount of realignment, were made to NC 28. New sections of NC 28 were built
and the existing roadway was improved to a 22-foot roadway.
Between 1963 and 1997, most roadway improvements consisted of resurfacing and
maintenance. In 1997, NC 28 was widened to a four-lane divided roadway from US 19/US
74 to just west of the Nantahala River. The widening of NC 28 (from the section that was
completed in 1997 to Edwards Gap) to a four-lane, divided section has been underway since
1997. The 25-mile section of NC 28 from Edwards Gap to Fontana is two lanes in width. No
historical record could be found for the section of roadway between SR 1245 (Fontana Dam
Road) in Graham County and US 129 prior to 1951; however, recards show the road existed
prior to the early 1950s.
In 1951, the 20-foot paved section of roadway between Lake Cheoah and US 129 was signed
as NC 28. In 1954 there was a short section reconstructed on new location and the segment
of roadway between SR l 245 and La1ce Cheoah was signed as NC 28. In 1965 the 20-foot
5
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
section of NC 28 between Lake Cheoah and US ] 29 was widened to a 24-foot, two lane
highway. No major improvements, only general maintenance to include resurfacing, have
been made to that section since 1965.
Within the study area, US 19 was constructed sometime priar to 1926 as a winding 12-foot
(3.6-m) topsoil road. In 1926, some improvements were made to increase the width and to
begin paving sections of the road. By 1941, the majority of US 19 within the study area had
been widened to 20 feet and resurfaced with asphalt pavement. Between 1941 and 1956,
only general maintenance and resurfacing were performed. In 1956-57, the pavement was
widened to 24 feet throughout the study area. From 1957 to 1976, no roadway widening was
undertaken within the study area limits of US 19. Only general maintenance and resurfacing
were performed.
Between 1976 and 1983, improvements were made from the US 19/US 74 interchange to just
east of the Little Tennessee River. During that time the 24-foot, two-lane, road was widened
to a four-lane divided facility. In 1990-91, the section of roadway, signed as US 19/LTS
74/NC 28, was improved from two lanes to a fiv�lane, undivided roadway from just west of
the Little Tennessee River to the NC 28 split.
US 74 between US 441 and the US 19/US 74 interchange was constructed in 1976 as a four-
lane, divided facility with 12-foot (3.6-m) lanes. No major improvements have been made to
this section of roadway since that time.
2.1.1.2 North of Fontana Lake
SR 1364 (Fontana Road) is a paved two-lane facility that intersects US 19 in Bryson City and
extends northwest. The lanes are 11 feet (3.4 m) wide, and the overall pavement condition is
good. The NCDOT has resurfaced a section of this roadway from the town limits to SR l 326
(Jordan Road). From Jordan Road to the boundary of GSMNP, the pavement has moderate
transverse cracking. The shoulders and roadside ditches are narrow and well maintained.
At the boundary of GSMNP, Fontana
Road becomes Lake View Road (also
referred to as Lakeview Drive or North
Shore Road). The lanes narrow to 10
feet (3 m), and the pavement condition
ranges from fair to poor. The roadway
is settling in several locations and the
pavement surface is oxidized. A few
areas have been patched but there are
other locations where the asphalt
Terminusof Lake View Road beyond the Tunnel near Bryson Gty
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
surface is breaking. The shoulders and roadside ditches are narrow but well maintained. In
some locations, ditches are paved adjacent to the travel lanes. In a few instances there are
steep, high fill slopes without guardrail. Lake View Road has parking areas where GSMNP
visitors can access hiking and horse trails. Immediately west of the parking areas is a tunnel
that was completed in 1970. This segment is the last portion of Lake View Road that was
constructed.
2.1.2 G9V1NPTrailsand Old f�adbeds
Within the GSMNP portion of the study area, many old roadbeds, including old railroad beds,
built in the early 1900s, still exist. Although some of these old roadbeds have been
completely abandoned, several of them, in whole or in part, have been converted to and are
maintained as hiking trails (See Figure 2).
Of greatest significance is former route NC 288, which was constructed adjacent to the
Tuckasegee and Little Tennessee rivers. NC 288 was a stat�maintained gravel surface road
that served as the primary access into the area. Much of this old road is now submerged
under Fontana Lake; however, some sections are above the lake's high-water level. Most of
these sections are now used for Lakeshore Trail. The old roadbed, including shoulders, varies
in width up to approximately 30 feet (9 m) with narrow ditches that have become shallow
over the years. Along the shoreline of Fontana Lake, the old roadbed has become densely
vegetated. However, along the remaining portion of the old roadbed that is used as hiking
trails, the gravel surface can still be seen. An occasional tree, greater than 6 inches (0.5 m) in
diameter, has grown within the old roadbed.
Historically, several roads ran through the communities located north of the Little Tennessee
and Tuckasegee rivers. Today, some of these old roads are used by the NPS as administrative
roads for service vehicle access and are generally in fair condition, including Forney Creek
Trail and Noland Creek Trail. There are sections of tbe administrative roads, such as those
along Hazel Creek Trail, that are in poor condition due largely to stormwater erosion. These
roads are generally 14 to 20 feet (4 to 6 m) wide and have a soil ar gravel surface. Typically,
bridge widths on these roads can accommodate only one service vehicle at a time.
The remaining roadbeds within GSMNP run primarily north and south following close to the
bottom of the valleys. These roadbeds vary in width from 8 to 14 feet (2.4 to 4.0 m) and were
constructed parallel to streams, often within 4 feet (1.2 m) of the stream banks. For example,
a section of old roadbed along Possum Hollow has vertical stone walls. These roadbeds
typically have no ditches or shoulders.
7
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
2.1.3 Tunnel and Bridge Conditions
The tunnel on Lake View Road is 30 feet (9.1 m) wide and 1,083 feet (300.1 m) long. The
walls of the tunnel ha�e mineral deposit buildup and the infiltration of water has eroded
several of the construction joints. Concrete patching has been used to repair areas of joint
erosion. The tunnel has never been opened to vehicular traffic; however, visitors commonly
walk or ride horses through it. In 2001 both the NCDOT and FHWA inspected the bridges
and culverts on the state highway system within the study area. The ratings ranged from fair
to good, as detailed in Tables 1 and 2.
NCDOT ID No.
Table 1
Primary &idges and Culverts on State Routes
�ffiaenc.y
County Rpute �at Type Rating �nd on
(peroentage)
370002 Graham NC 28 1955 Culvert 80 Good
370003 Graham NC 28 1947 Culvert 99.9 Good
370006 Graham NC 28 1943 Culvert 99.5 Good
370009 Graham NC 28 1943 Bridge 66.4 Fair
370138 Graham NC 28 1952 Ape 97.6 Good
860008 9✓vain US19/74, NC 28 1982 Bridge 95.0 Fair
860009 9✓vain NC 28 1988 Bridge 97 Good
860010 9✓vain � 1140 1978 Bridge 95.9 Good'
860011 9✓vain US 19/74 1975 Bridge 95.7 Good
860012 9dvain US 19/74 1975 Bridge 93.6 Good
860013 9✓vain US 19/74 1976 Bridge 95.5 Good
860014 9�vain US 19/74 1978 Bridge 98.0 Good
860015 9✓vain US 19/74 1975 Bridge 97 Good
860016 9dvain US 19/74 1976 Bridge 95.5 Good
860129 9✓vain � 1364 1969 Bridge 76.9 Fair
860148 9✓vain 9� 1304 1926 Bridge 61.6 Fair
860153 9dvain � 1323 1969 Bridge 80.6 Fair
860165 9✓vain NC 28 1960 Culvert 99.5 Good
860186 9�vain NC 28 1997 Bridge 98 Good
D5G00000099183D 9✓vain �rvation Fd�ad 1946 Dam 74.2 -----
Note: F�roentage based on 100% for a new pipe, culvert, bridge, or dam.
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Inspedion
Date
11 /15/2001
7/18/2001
7/18/2001
7/16/2001
7/19/2001
10/1 /2001
10/1 /2001
10/30/2001
10/30/2001
10/30/2001
10/30/2001
11 /5/2001
11 /5/2001
10/30/2001
10/2/2002
10/24/2001
10/2/2001
9/19/2001
10/1 /2001
12/1993
0
Est. Life
Remaining
(years)
40
20
20
16
20
32
33
26
26
28
26
26
22
26
20
10
16
18
48
Strudure
No.
5460-126S
5460-127S
5460-128S
5460-152S
5460-153S
5460-1545`
5460-155S
5460-156S
5460-157S
�L[:�ibFf:�y
5460-159S
5460-101 P
5460-131 S
5460-132S
5460-133S
5460-134S
5460-135S
5460-136S
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 2
Structures Within Great S1�noky Mountains National Park Study
Area
L�ocation
Bear Creek Trail �idge No. 1 over Forney Creek
Bear Creek Trail Bridge No. 2 over Forney Creek
Bear Creek Trail Bridge No. 3 over Bear Creek
Hazel Creek Trail Bridge No. 1 over Hazel Creek
Hazel Creek Trail &idge No. 2 over Hazel Creek
Hazel Creek Trail Bridge No. 3 over Hazel Creek
Hazel Creek Trail Bridge No. 4 over Hazel Creek
Hazel Creek Trail Bridge No. 5 over Hazel Creek
Hazel Creek Trail Bridge No. 6 over Hazel Creek
Hazel Creek Trail Bridge No. 7 over Hazel Creek
Hazel Creek Trail Bridge No. 8 over Bone Valley
Creek
NP5 R�ute 9A over Noland Creek
Noland Creek Trail &idge No. 1 over Noland Creek
Noland Creek Trail Bridge No. 2 over Noland Creek
Noland Creek Trail Bridge No. 3 over Noland Creek
Noland Creek Trail Bridge No. 4 over Noland Creek
Noland Creek Trail Bridge No. 5 over Noland Creek
Noland Creek Trail Bridge No. 6 over Noland Creek
NP5 Rte 9A (Lakeview Drive) through Bu�ard R�ost
5460-167S Mtn.
* This bridge was severely damaged in the May 2003 floods.
Year Year Inspection �• Vfe
Construded Reoonstruded COndition Date �maining
(Yrs)
1956
1959
1998
1987
1992
1992
1992
1992
1992
1998
1983
N/A
1992
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Good
Fair
Good
Fair
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
8/10/2001
8/10/2001
8/10/2001
3/11 /1998
8/17/2001
8/17/2001
8/17/2001
8/17/2001
8/17/2001
30-35
30-35
30-35
8
35
35-40
35
35-40
35-40
`������%ZI= � � ��•i`r1��1Z1��Z1',
1987
1971
1948
1973
1948
1943
1982
1948
1969
1992
N/A
N/A
WA
N/A
N/A
N/A
1987
N/A
Good
Good
Fair
Fair
Fbor
Fbor
Good
Fair
Fbor
8/17/2001
8/8/2001
8/10/2001
8/10/2001
8/10/2001
8/10/2001
8/8/2001
8/10/2001
8/8/2001
10
35-40
40-45
8
8
6
3
30-35
25-30
10
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
2.2 F�cisting Traffic Conditions
This section provides a summary of the existing traffic conditions within the study area.
Included is an assessment of the primary roadway network south and east of Fontana Lake.
2.2.1 9�rstem Linkage
2.2.1.1 Road Network
The existing road network services the areas surrounding Fontana Lake and connects Bryson
Ciry and various secondary roads to regions outside the study area. As described previously
in Section 2.1.1 of this report, the primary east-west roadways in the study area include NC
28, US 19, and US 74.
The 2003 average daily traffic (ADT) volumes for NC 28 range from approximately 230 to
2,100 vehicles per day (vpd) between Deal's Gap and US 19/LTS 74. The 2003 ADT volumes
far US 74 range from approximately 8,600 to 10,200 vpd within the study area, while US 19
ranges from approximately 3,800 to 10,400 vpd from the US 74 interchange through Bryson
City.
The posted speed limits along NC 28 between Deal's Gap and the US 19/US 74 intersection
range between 20 and 55 miles per hour (30 and 90 kph). The speed limit along US 74
within the study area is constant at 55 miles per hour (90 kph). US 19 from the US 74
interchange through Bryson City has a variable posted speed limit ranging from 20 to 45
miles per hour (30 to 70 kph). Lake View Road from Bryson City into GSMNP has posted
speed limits ranging from 20 to 35 miles per hour (30 to 55 kph). Other roads within Bryson
City's limits typically have a posted speed limit of 20 miles per hour (30 kph). Roads outside
the city limits have speed limits ranging from 20 to 45 miles per hour (30 to 72 kph).
2.2.1.2 Railroads
The Great Smoky Mountains Railroad services the Bryson City region, connecting Dillsboro,
Bryson City, and Nantahala. The 53-mile (85-km) line was owned by Norfolk Southern
Railroad until 1988, when it was purchased by the State of North Carolina and leased to the
Great Smoky Mountains Railroad, Inc. It is now primarily used for passenger travel as a
tourist attraction for the area. No other passenger or freight service is available in the study
area.
11
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
2.2.1.3 Airports
No airports are in the study area. The nearest airport, Macon Counry Airport, which has one
landing strip, is offNC 28 south of the study area. The nearest major airport, Asheville
Regional Airport, is rougbly 70 miles (112.7 km) northeast of tbe study area just off Interstate
40 in Buncombe County.
2.2.1.4 Bicydesand f�destrians
There are no NCDOT-designated bicycle routes within the study area. However, due to the
scenery and recreational characteristics of the study area in proximity to the Appalachian
National Scenic Trail, the Mountains to Sea Trail, and the Blue Ridge Parkway, cyclists,
hikers, and pedestrians are a common sight along some of the roadways within the study area,
especially during the summer months. Mare information concerning biking and hiking trails
within GSMNP and the Nantahala National Forest is included in Section 3.4 of this
document. Within Bryson City itself, sidewalks and wide roadways serve pedestrian and
bicycle traffic. Outside the city limits, all roadways are either two-lane rural highways with
minimal shoulders or four-lane freeways, which are not bicycle or pedestrian friendly. No
dedicated bicycle lanes are within the study area.
222 Transportation Plans
2.2.2.1 NCDOT Tran�nortation Improvement {Yogram
Four projects included in the NCDOT 2004-2010
TIP are within the study area as shown on Figures
3A and 3B. The NCDOT's TIP is the state's plan
for all transportation projects, including roadway,
bicycle, aviation, and rail. Project B-3701 is a
bridge replacement over Alarka Creek on SR 1309
(Lower Alarka Road), and B-3458 is a bridge
replacement over Stecoah Creek on SR 1237
(Jenkins Road), both within the study area. These
projects are scheduled for construction in the year
2003. Project No. E-4588 is a streetscape
enhancement project to Everett Street in Bryson
Ciry, which is under construction.
Construction on NC28. Slimmer 2003
In addition, the TIP includes Project No. A-9, which
consists of a realignment of US 74 from US 19 east of Almond to Andrews, creating a four-
lane divided freeway. Project A-9 is segmented into 10 smaller projects. Project Nos. A-9
12
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
DA through DD are within the study area and follow NC 28 from US 19 to Stecoah. Project
Nos. A-9 DA through DC are complete and A-9 DD is currently under construction,
predicted to be complete by the end of year 2003.
2.2.2.2 Thoroughfare R'an
A thoroughfare plan documents the long-range transportation planning efforts for a particular
region. The Thoroughfare Plan Technical Report for Grahain Counry and Robbinsville,
November 1998, and the Thoroughfare Plan.for Bryson City, March 1993, pertain to the
study area. These suggested improvements are also shown on Figures 3A and 3B. While the
study area is not part of a metropolitan planning organization, it may become part of a future
rural planning organization. However, Swain and Graham counties are members ofthe
Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), a regional planning organization that includes
planning for physical infrastructure.
The Thoroughfare Plan Technical Report for Graham County and Robbinsville recommends
improvements for two roadway facilities. The first improvement involves relocation of US
74 as a four-lane divided facility in Swain Counry (partially following NC 28) south of
Robbinsville to Cherokee County. It is suggested that this improvement may bring economic
growth to Graham County. This project is listed as TIP A-9, as described previously in
Section 2.2.2.1 of this report. The second recommendation is to upgrade existing NC 28
between Stecoah and Fontana Village to current standards.
The Thoroughfare Plan for Bryson City recommends numerous improvements to the
roadway system throughout the city. Many of these recommendations are based on traffic
demands during the summer tourist months. One recommendation is to construct a frontage
road parallel to US 74 from SR 1160 (Wade Crain Road), across SR ] l 59 (Veterans
Memorial Highway), on to SR 1158 (Arlington Avenue) to reduce traffic volumes on US 19
through Bryson City. Another recommendation is to realign SR 1336 (Depot Street) to tie
into SR 1321 (Gibson Street), which would move Depot Street farther away from the railroad
crossing and eliminate the unfavorable offset intersection condition. The plan also suggests
widening US 19 and SR 1364 (Everett Street) to three or four lanes for additional capacity,
allowing storage for turning vehicles. The roads recommended for improvement are all
NCDOT-maintained roadways; however, they are not currently listed in the TIP for future
enhancement.
2.2.3 HistoricTrafficGrowth
Based on NCDOT ADT maps for the years of 1995, 1999, 2000, and 2001, an annual traffic
growth rate of 1.9 percent was calculated for the major routes in the study area. This growth
13
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
rate is also consistent with the annual increase used by NCDOT in the TIP Project No. A-9
traffic forecast (April 1996).
22.4 2003Traffic3�rveys
Traffic turning movement counts were performed at six major study area intersections, with
24-hour data collected for seven days at six primary mainline routes. The traffic surveys
were conducted at the end of March 2003, with additional counts conducted in August 2003
during the peak tourist season to determine traffic volumes in the project study area.
Seasonal multiplication factors (provided by the NCDOT's Traffic Survey Unit) were applied
to predict peak traffic volumes to appropriately adjust the March 2003 data and determine the
worst-case traffic scenario. Figure 4A depicts the intersection locations of the traffic surveys
and Figure 4B shows adjusted turning movement volumes used for analysis.
Traffic tuming movement counts were conducted at the following intersections:
■ SR 1364 (Everett Street/Fontana Road) and SR 1336 (Depot Street) — Four-leg
intersection at the base of Fontana Road in Bryson City, North Carolina.
■ SR ] 364 (Everett Street) and US 19 (Main Street) — Four-leg intersection in the heart of
Bryson City, North Carolina.
■ NC 28 and US 19/US 74 (East) — Thre�leg intersection where NC 28 ties into US 19/
US 74 in Lauada, North Carolina.
■ NC 28 and US 19/US 74 (West) — Thre�leg intersection where NC 28 splits off from
US 19/ US 74 near Almond, North Carolina.
■ NC 28 and NC 143 — Three-leg intersection. NC 143 leads toward Robbinsville, North
Carolina.
■ NC 28 and SR 1246 (Welch Road) — Thre�leg intersection at the entrance to Fontana
Village, North Carolina, west of Fontana Lake.
Traffic counts were taken for the following study area roadways to collect 24-hour data:
SR ] 364 (Fontana Road/Everett Street) — a two-lane rural road that extends from Bryson
Ciry, North Carolina, into GSMNP. (930 Raw ADT, l, l l 0 Adjusted ADT)
US 19, east of Bryson City — a two-lane, minor collector that gives access to and from
Bryson City, North Carolina, to the east. (6,940 Raw ADT, 8,335 Adjusted ADT)
14
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
■ US 19, west of Bryson City — a two-lane, minor collector that gives access to and from
Bryson Ciry, North Carolina, to the west. (8,855 Raw ADT, 10,640 Adjusted ADT)
■ SR 1309 (Lower Alarka Road) at US 19/74 Interchange — a two-lane secondary collector
road that connects a number of other secondary roads with US 19. (1,235 Raw ADT,
1,485 Adjusted ADT)
■ SR 1159 (Veterans Boulevard) — an undivided, four-lane, minor collector that directly
connecis Bryson City, North Carolina, to US 74 to the south. (7,470 Raw ADT, 8,970
Adjusted ADT)
■ NC 28, near Fontana Dam — a two-lane, minor collector that connects Tennessee and
Fontana Village to Bryson Ciry, North Carolina, and US 19/US 74. (370 Raw ADT, 780
Adjusted ADT)
22.5 Roadway Capaaty
A capaciry analysis was completed to determine the impact of the region's transportation
demand on the study area's existing transportation network. Analyses were conducted for the
current year 2003 using adjusted traffic volumes.
Level of service (LOS) is a qualitative measure used to describe the operating conditions of a
roadway. The Highway Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board 2000) generally
describes level of service in terms of factors such as speed, travel time, freedom to maneuver,
traffic interruptions, driver comfort and convenience, and safety. Level of service is
represented by a ranking letter from "A" to "F," with "A" representing free flow conditions,
and "F" representing traffic breakdown conditions. Levels of service are described as
follows:
Level of Service A
Vehicles move in fre�flow traffic conditions to select their desired speed.
Motorists have great maneuverability with the traffic stream.
The general level of travel comfort and convenience is excellent.
Level of Service B
Vehicles move in stabl�flow conditions.
Motorists' operating speeds are somewhat affected by other vehicles.
Motorists experience a slight decline in the freedom to maneuver within the traffic
stream.
15
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Level of Service C
■ Vehicles move in stabl�flow traffic conditions.
■ Motorists' operating speeds and maneuverability are substantially affected by other
vehicles.
■ The general level of comfort and convenience declines noticeably.
Level of Service D
■ The stable traffic flow begins to become unstable due to a higher density of vehicles.
■ Travel speeds and freedom to maneuver are severely restricted.
■ The general level of comfort and convenience is poor.
■ Operational problems occur with small increases in traffic volumes.
Level of Service E
■ Vehicles move in unstable-flow traffic conditions.
■ Speeds are uniformly reduced.
■ Traffic volumes are at or approaching the roadway's capacity level.
■ Motorists' freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is extremely constrained.
■ The general level of travel comfort and convenience is extremely poor.
■ Breakdowns in the transportation system are caused by small increases in traffic volume.
Level of Service F
■ Vehicles move in forced-flow (stop and go) traffic conditions.
■ Traffic volumes exceed the roadway capacity level.
■ Hazardous queues develop.
■ Traffic congestion causes traffic to be stopped for long periods of time.
Operational capaciry analyses, which determine the LOS of facilities, were conducted for
existing US 74, US 19, NC 28, and Fontana Road utilizing Synchro 5.0, the Highway
Capacity Software T�ersion 4.1 (FHWA 2000), and methodologies provided in the Highway
Capacity Manual (HCM) (Transportation Research Board 2000). Capaciry is defined in the
HCM as, "the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point during a specified
16
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
period under prevailing roadway, traffic, and control conditions." Level of Service for a
signalized intersection is based on the overall delay associated with all vehicle movements
passing through an intersection. For unsignalized intersections, LOS is assigned to each
impeded movement through the intersection based on individual delay, while unimpeded
vehicles are considered to be free-flowing and experience no delay.
2.2.5.1 Inter�ction Conditions
The study area intersection locations and the adjusted peak-hour traffic volumes for base year
2003 that were used for analysis are shown in Figures 4A and 4B. Traffic volumes were
analyzed to determine the current LOS in the study area, based on existing lane
configurations. The LOS for the selected unsignalized and signalized intersections are listed
in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The majority of intersections along US 74 and NC 28 operate
at acceptable capacities, while intersections within Bryson City (such as Everett Street with
Depot Street) can approach or operate at unacceptable capacity during peak hours throughout
tourist season.
The unsignalized intersection of Everett Street and Depot Street within Bryson City operates
at an unacceptable LOS during the p.m. peak-traffic hour. This is primarily due to the
number of left-turning vehicles, coming from northeast Bryson City, on westbound Depot
Street that must stop and wait for a pause in ihe Everett Street traffic. Since there are only
single-lane approaches to this intersection (on all four legs), the number of traffic gaps
available for turning movements is minimal. Furthermore, each stopped vehicle impedes all
other movements on that leg, which can cause significant queues.
The LOS of the signalized intersection of US 19 and Veterans Boulevard was also found to
deteriarate during the p.m. peak hour. This deficiency is due to the relatively large numbers
of westbound and southbound left-turn movements, sharing lanes with ihrough moving
vehicles, under a two-phase signal control. Traffic counts performed in 1999 by NCDOT
were available for this intersection's analysis, making it possible to use the 2 percent annual
growth factor and NCDOT's seasonal multiplication factors to obtain peak traffic volumes
associated with the summer tourist season.
17
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 3
Intersection Level of Servioe - Unsignalized
(Year 2003)
A.M. P.M.
Unsignalized Intersedion LAS Delay (seo�nds) LAS Delay (seconds)
Everett Sreet and Depot 3reet C E
5� 1364 - NB Left-Through-f3ght 7.8 7.9
� 1364 - � l.eft-Through-F�ght 8. 8.8
�21336 - WB Left-Through-F3ght 21.6 48.0
S� 1336 -� Left-Through-F�ght 13.0 15.0
US 19/US 74 and NC 28 (East)
US 19/US 74 - WB Left
NC 28 - NB Left-f�ght
US 19/US 74 and NC 28 (West)
US 19/US 74 - � Left
NC 28 - � Left
NC 28 - � f�ght
NC 28 and NC 143
NC 28 - WB Through-Left
NC 143 - NB Left
NC 143 - NB Fdght
NC 28 and � 1246 at Fontana Village
NC 28 - WB Through-Left
gt 1246 - NB Left-I�ght
B B
8.4
10.7
C C
8.1
16.0
9.9
B B
7.9
12.9
9.5
A A
7.3
8.7
Table 4
Intersection Level of Service-Signalized
(Year 2003)
8.3
10.3
8.5
17.3
10.2
7.7
13.3
9.5
7.4
8.7
A.M. P.M.
5gnalized Intersection LOS Delay (seo�nds) LAS Delay (seconds)
US 19 and Veterans Boulevard B 12.0 C 21.3
(Based on 1999 counts)
US 19 and Everett Sreet A 14.1 B 15.3
18
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
2.2.5.2 Corridor Conditions
Mainline LOS for the major roadways analyzed are listed in Table 5. Four of the five
mainlines examined appear to operate at acceptable levels of service under current roadway
conditions. The majority of the roadways within the study area are found to have an
acceptable LOS due to low volumes of traffic, even during the area's peak tourism season.
While most of the roadways studied operate at LOS A, SR 1364 (Fontana Road) from Bryson
City to GSMNP appears to operate closer to capacity at a LOS C. This is likely due to a
combination of steep grade and lack of passing zones. US 19 operates at LOS E through
Bryson Ciry, from the US 74 interchange to SR 1168 (Walker Woody Road), due to
relatively hea�y traffic volumes, and a large number of access points.
Table 5
Mainline L,evelsof Servic�e (2003)
Mainline Roadway Rpad Type
SR 1364 (Fontana 13�ad)
US 19 from Bryson City to � 1168 (Walker Woody f3�ad)
US 19 from US74 interchange to Bryson City
US74 from NC 28 intersection to SR1190 interchange
I�C�3'�:3 . u `I u . � .. . _ �•_.. i
NC 28 from �ecoah to Fontana �lllage
2.2.6 �eed 3udy
2-lane undivided
2-lane undivided
2-lane undivided
4-lane divided
4-lane divided
2-lane undivided
LOS During Peak
C
E
E
A
IG1
I�
A speed study was conducted on the main routes examined in the study area using machine
counters (JAMAR TRAX Traffic Counting Units) in April, July, and August 2003. Table 6
lists the sections studied and the average calculated speed along those roadways versus the
posted speed limits. The average traveling speeds along routes US 19, NC 28, SR 1159
(Veterans Boulevard), and SR 1364 (Fontana Road) were relatively close to the posted speed
limits during the March 2003 data collection. This indicates that, on average, there are likely
no substantial delays along these routes that impede traffic flows. However, observed travel
speeds are typically higher than posted speed limits under normal conditions. This may not
be the case for the roadways witbin the study area due to the horizontal and vertical
curvature, which does not allow for safe maneuvering at higher speeds.
19
Table 6
Speed Study (2003)
Mainline R�oadway
R�
US 19, east of Bryson City
US 19, west of Bry�n City
Veterans Boulevard (S� 1159) between Main
Street (US 19) and US74 interchange
NC 28 near Fontana Dam, east of Fontana
�lllage
Fontana f3�ad (�21364) south of park entrance
2.3 Acxident Analysis
Lane Configuration
2-lane undivided
2-lane undivided
4-lane undivided
2-lane undivided
2-lane undivided
Actual Posted
Speed Limit
35 mph
(55 kph)
35 mph
(55 kph)
35 mph
(55 kph)
45 mph
(72 kph)
45 mph
(72 kph)
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Average
M easured
�eed Limit
34 mph
(54 kph)
37 mph
(60 kph)
36 mph
(58 khp)
43 mph
(69 kph)
47 mph
(76 kph)
Accident data were obtained from the Traffic Engineering Branch of the NCDOT for the
study area. The data include 10 intersections along NC 28, US 19, US 74, and Fontana Road
listed in Table 7. Data were also collected for the four mainline sections of roadway shown
in Table 8. The data represent all reported accidents occurring within a thre�year period
from the fall of 1999 through the fall of 2002. These data provide the number of accidents at
a specified location and the particular type of accident. While the main focus is on the study
area's primary east-west route, other primary and secondary roadways in the study area were
also examined for a local comparison. Since the study area is relatively ]arge, not all of the
accident data obtained are included in this report, only that data found to be applicable.
During the three-year period, 76 accidents were reported at the 10 main intersections and 208
accidents were reported along approximately 54.6 miles (88 km) of primary mainline
sections, between intersections, within the study area. Rear-end accidents are the most
common accident type for intersections, while vehicles driving off the road were most
common along the mainline sections. Rear-end accidents typically occur where unexpected
traffic queues force sudden stops, at signalized intersections during signal phase changes, and
when drivers are distracted. They are also indicative of congestion and driver frustration.
Vehicles tend to drive off the road when either there is an object in the roadway or the driver
is distracted.
20
Table 7
Intersection Aocident Data
(Fall 1999 through Fall 2002)
Type of Acadent
Number of (Piercentage of Total Aocidents)
Total Number Vehides Number of Left
Intersection of Crashes Involved Deaths Angle Rear End Animal Turn Off Road Other Motorc.ydes
US 74 and SR 1190 interchange $ � � 3 5
--- --- --- --- --- ---
38% 62°/a
US 19 and � 1168 9 � � 2 1 5 1
--- ---
22% 11% 56% 11%
US 19 and Everette 3reet 13 25 1 8 3 1 1
--- 23� /0 8 /o --- 4 /o
(5:1364) 8% 61% ° ° °
US 19 and Main 3reet 5 10 1 1 1 1 1
---
20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
US 19 and 9ope 3reet 17 34 1 6 7 1 3
(5:1323) 35% 41 °/a "' ° ° ---
6 /0 18 /o
US 19 and US 74 interchange 7 g 1 1 5
--- --- ---
14°/a 14°/a 72°/a
US 19/US 74 and NC 28 East 2 4 2
--- --- --- --- ---
100%
US 19/US 74 and NC 28 West 4 9 1 2 1 5
--- --- ---
25% 50% 25% 56%
1 2 1 __
NC 28 and NC 143 4 7 --- ---
--- 25% 50% --- 25%
Everette 3reet and Depot 3reet 7 15 0 0 �o
--- --- --- ---
43 /0 43 /0 14 /o
Total 76 141 ^ � 17 25 0 14 T 14 6 6
22% 33% 0% 18% 18% 8% 4%
Note: Intersections not shown here had fewer than 2 crashes reported for that intersection during the 3-year study period.
Table 8
Mainline Acadent Data
(Fall 1999 through Fall 2002)
Number
of M iles Total
Number Number Number
Mainline Roadways �km� of of of
(Exduding Intersedions) Acadents Vehides Deaths Angle
US 74 from NC 28 West
intersection near Almond to
SR 1190 interchange
US 19 from US 74 interchange
to ea, North Carolina
NC 28 from US 19/US 74
intersection to US 129
intersection
Fontana 13�ad/Everette 3reet
Total
11.8 4
(19) 40 52 1 (10%)
��'2� 73 156 1 (14°O/o )
32.2 6
(52) 92 131 4 (70�0 )
3.0 3 6 0 �
�5) (0% )
�$$� 208 � 345 6 � �� ��o �
Type of Aocident
(Percentage of Total Aocidents)
Rear Left Off
End Animal Turn Road
2 5 1 25
(5%) (13%) (3%) (63%)
27 1 12 15
(37%) (1%) (16%) (21%)
14 1 4 33
(15%) (1%) (4%) (36%)
0 0 2 0
(0%) (0%) {67%) (0%)
43 7 T 19 73
(21%) (3%) (9%) (35%)
Other
3
�$% )
8
(11 %)
34
(37% )
1
{33% )
46
(22% )
M otorc.ydes
(Percentage
of total
vehides)
1
�2%)
7
�4% )
41
(31%)
0
��% )
49
(14%)
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
A relatively large amount of motorcycle traffic is in the study area during the summer and fall
months. The region is likely very popular with motorcyclists because of the scenic views and
curved roadways. Motarcycle racing has been reported along NC 28 between NC 143 and
US 129 in Deals Gap. This activity has contributed to a high probability for motorcycle
accidents. Roughly 14 percent of mainline roadway accidents involved motorcycles.
Accarding to local law enforcement officials, a large portion of racing accidents go
unreported.
An accident rate is one measure of the relative safety of a roadway or intersection, indicating
signs of capaciry or safery deficiencies. Accident rates at intersections are calculated from the
ADT entering ihe intersection and the number of recorded accidents within the proximity of
that intersection. Accident rates for mainline sections of roadways are calculated from the
ADT and the number of reported accidents along the studied roadway. North Carolina uses
an accident rate of number of accidents per 100 million vehicle miles (161 million vehicle
km) for roadways, and likewise accident rates for intersections are represented as number of
accidents per 100 million vehicles entering an intersection. Average state accident rates for
North Carolina roadways for the years 1999 through 2001 were obtained from the Traffic
Safety Systems Management Unit of the Traffic Engineering and Safery Systems Branch at
NCDOT. Average rates for intersections are not provided by NCDOT because of the
numerous combinations of roadway rypes, geometric layouts, and sign/signal control at
intersections.
Facilities with full control of access tend to have lower accident rates as compared to those
that do not. Full control of access eliminates access to adjacent properties and avoids
driveways that introduce conflicts caused by vehicles turning into the traffic stream. US 74
has control of access east of its interchange with US 19, near Mallard Road. Its accident rate
of 40.62 is well below the average state rate of 126.75, as shown in Table 9. This rate is
actually closer to the North Carolina accident rate for a Rural Interstate Highway.
US 19 has an accident rate of 230.94 accidents per ] 00 million vehicle miles (161 million
vehicle km) as compared to the state average of 126.75 for rural US routes. This can be
attributed to a number of factors. US 19 currenily serves as the main thoroughfare through
downtown Bryson City; all but a few of the intersections are currently unsignalized; and the
number of vehicles in Bryson Ciry practically doubles in the summer from that of the winter
months, due to tourism. The majority of ihese drivers are unfamiliar with the area.
Especially during the summer tourist season, the volume of traffic along portions of US 19
either approaches or exceeds its capacity.
23
Table 9
Corridor Acadent Rates
Crashes per 100 M illion Vehide M iles (100 M illion Vehide km)
(Fall 1999 through Fall 2002)
Mainline Roadways Number Number AADT Aocident Rate
(Induding Intersedions) of M iles of (vpd) per 100 million
(km) Aacidents M iles (km)
US 74 from NC 28 West intersection near
Almond to 521190 interchange
US 19 from US74 interchange to Ba,
North Carolina
NC 28 from US 19/US 74 intersection to
US 129 intersection
Fontana f3�ad/Everette 3reet
11.8
(19)
7.6
(12)
322
(52)
3.0
(5)
� NCDOTAverage Acadent Rates for similar roadway types.
42 8,003
123 6,400
97 1,076
40 3,650
40.62
(25.23)
230.94
(143.44)
255.68
(150.80)
333.60
(207.21)
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
NCDOT
Aocident
Rate�`
126.75
126.75
176.22
335.16
The accident rate for NC 28, at 255.68 accidents per 100 million vehicle miles (161 million
vehicle km), is approximately 45 percent higher than the North Carolina average, which is
listed at 176.22 for rural NC routes. This difference is most likely due to the mountainous
terrain and the geometty of the road. It may also be a factor of the motarcycle racing
mentioned previously.
The intersections with the highest accident rates (134.37 and 131.75 accidents per 100 million
vehicles entering the intersection) were US ] 9 at SR ] 168 (Walker Woody Road) and SR
1323 (Slope Street), respectively, within Bryson City. Neither of these intersections is
currently signalized, but both experience high volumes of traffic relative to the number of
lanes. A summary of accident rates for the study area intersections is listed in Table 10.
24
Table 10
Intersection Aocident Rates
Aocidents per 100 M illion Vehides Entering Intersection
(Fall 1999 through Fall 2002)
Intersection
US 74 and � 1190 interchange
US 19 and �21168
US 19 and Everette 3reet (5� 1364)
US 19 and Main �reet
US 19 and 9ope �reet (� 1323)
US 19 and US 74 interchange
US 19/US 74 and NC 28 East
Us 19/US74 and NC 28 West
NC 28 and NC 143
Everette 3reet and Depot 3reet
2.3.1 Conclusion
Number of
Aocidents
8
9
13
5
17
7
2
4
4
7
Daily Intersedion
Volume (vpd)
9,500
6,117
13,975
13,958
11,783
11,092
8,250
7,717
2,883
6,825
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Acadent Rate
76.90
134.37
84.95
32.71
131.75
57.64
22.14
47.34
126.69
93.67
Meetings held with the NCDOT Division Traffic Engineer, Scott E. Cook, Graham Counry
Sheriff Bob DeBruhl, and Swain County Sheriff Bob Ogle reflect the results obtained in this
analysis. Traffic witbin the shidy area appears to be adequately accommodated by the
existing roadway system, even during the peak traffic volume months of July and August.
Areas of moderate congestion occur during the summer months within Bryson City, and there
are a few areas with capacity deficiencies. NCDOT representatives and both sheriffs
expressed concern over the amount of motorcycle traffic on NC 28 between US 19/LTS 74
and Deals Gap. There are relatively low volumes of traffic within the study area, even during
the peak summer months, with no apparent areas of significant congestion.
25
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3. 6cisting Environmental Conditions
The study area is within the planning jurisdictions of Swain Counry, Bryson City, and
Graham County. The TVA has jurisdiction over the land around Fontana Lake below 1,710
feet (521.2 m) in elevation from mean sea level (msl). The NPS has authority over GSMNP,
while the United States Forest Service (USFS) has jurisdiction over Nantahala National
Forest lands within the study area. The municipal limits of Bryson City, the boundaries of
GSMNP and the Nantahala National Forest, areas of TVA authority, and the county
boundaries are illustrated in Figure 5.
3.1 Land Use (Existing and Future)
3.1.1 Great 9noky MountainsNational Park
GSMNP encompasses approximately 800 square miles (2,071.99 km�) in Swain and
Haywood counties in North Carolina, and Blount, Sevier, and Cocke counties in Tennessee
(www.gsmnp.com 2003). The study area encompasses 56,196.25 acres (22,741.85 ha) within
GSMNP. Virivally all parklands within the study area are forested. Land surrounding the
park is primarily forested foothills and mountains, and nearly all cultivatable land is farmed.
According to the GSMNP General Management Plan (GMP), "Land use befare 1880 was
predominantly agricultural. When commercial logging interests moved into the region,
tourists, and tourist-related development began to replace traditional farms. Resort
communities, second homes, and recreational facilities were developed on lands bardering
the parl�' (NPS 1982).
GSMNP is one of approRimately 29 NPS units within the United States designated by the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (LJNESCO) as an
"International Biosphere Reserve." LTNESCO describes Biosphere Reserves as "areas of
terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of
biodiversity witb its sustainable use." They are internationally recognized, nominated by
national governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are
located (www.unesco.org/mab 2003). The designation was launched in 1968 when the "Man
and the Biosphere Programme" was organized within LTNESCO to "strike a balance between
the conflicting goals of conserving biodiversity, promoting economic and social
development, and maintaining associated cultural values" (http://usparks.about.com. 2003).
GSMNP is one of 20 World Heritage Sites within the United States. The World Heritage
program is part of the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) of
UNESCO. The ICOMOS was established in 1965 as an international non-governmental
organization of professionals dedicated to the conservation of the world's historic monuments
and sites. In the United States, the NPS serves as director for the natural and cultural heritage
26
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
of the nation. GSMNP was designated based on its natural heritage criteria as seen in its
1983 inscription:
"The Great Smoky Mountains National Park protects one of the world's fznest
temperate deciduous forests and is a reminder of the tree-rich landscape of pre-
Colun�bian Ainerica. Due to the fertile soil and abundant rain, this area boasts 1,520
flower species, 130 varieties of trees, SO marnmal species and 27 [now 30] different
kinds of salamanders. The plants are related to those found across the Pacific,
testifying to the ancient inigration of t�^ees and. flowers from Asia by way of the
Bering land bridge. The Smokies also represent an important period in the earth's
development when 300 million years ago, supercontinents collided and the earth's
crust pushed upward forming high, jagged mountains. Over the course of time these
mountains have been smoothed and softened by erosion. The geographical evidence,
biological evolution and diversity make this park a superlative natural preserve
(NPS 2003a). "
The GSMNP GMP was published in 1982. The plan was developed with a 10- to 15-year
planning horizon, although it is still used to meet the objectives and intentions established for
GSMNP, which are to preserve the exceptionally diverse resources found in the park and to
provide far public benefit from and enjoyment of them, without altering those resources
(GMP 1982). The plan functions as a management guide for meeting these objectives. The
plan designates management zones to indicate appropriate uses, activities, and management
actions for the park. The GMP's Proposed Management Zoning Map is included as Figure 6.
Within the study area, the "Development" management zone includes a linear corridor along
Lake View Road and a polygon around the Fontana Dam Area. The "Development Zone"
was established for areas with access roads, parking, interpretive facilities, camping, picnic
grounds, buildings, and utility systems, as well as parking areas and storage facilities for park
operation and maintenance activities. Within the development management zone, these areas
are considered part of the "Transportation Subzone," which is a classification for public road
corridars. The "General Park Development Subzone" classification consists of picnic areas,
camping areas, lodging areas, interpretive centers, major parking areas, park operational and
maintenance facilities, and staff housing. A small polygon west of Forney Creek and north of
Lake View Road has been given this designation. General development within the portion of
the park in the study area includes the Tunnel Area (at the end of Lake View Road within
GSMNP) as the future site of a picnic area (not to exceed ] 00 sites), an interpretive trail, and
comfort stations (with water and sewer [septic tank] systems) for day use.
"Natural" management zones encompass the natural resource areas of the park, which is the
predominant designation for the majority of the management zone areas. Within the study
area, there are two locations classified as "Natural Environment Type II Subzone." This
27
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
subzone is designated for small tracts inside the park boundary and tracts adjacent to
development zones that are established for developed uses or require mechanized equipment
for entry, such as cemetery and utility access roads, stables, and paved or heavily used trails.
Two such areas are a linear corridor that extends north from Lake View Road following
Noland Creek that travels to Upper and Lower Noland Cemeteries, and an area along the
backwaters of the Hazel Creek arm of Fontana Lake in the former town of Proctor that is
home to Proctor and Bradshaw cemeteries.
A large tract of land within GSMNP (44,170 acres [17,875 ha]), and almost completely
within the study area boundary, was transferred to the NPS from the TVA in 1949. This tract
is also part of a larger area (425,384 acres [172,147 ha]) that has been recommended by the
NPS far designation as a"Wilderness" area. Tl�e 44,170-acre (17,875-ha) tract is considered
a"Reserved Rights Subzone" within the "Special Use" management zone. Rights-of-way,
water rights, burial rights, and other reserved rights limit NPS jurisdiction and management
of this area. However, NPS maintains this area as if it were part of the "Natural"
management zone to the fullest extent possible (GMP 1982).
3.1.2 Nantahala National Forest
The southern portion of the study area includes parts of Nantahala National Forest, one of
four national forests in North Carolina. Nantahala, which means "land of the noon day sun,"
has over half a million acres (202,343 ha) in its jurisdiction and approximately 19,294 acres
(7,808 ha) are in the study area. The study area in Nantahala National Forest is part of the
Cheoah Ranger District, which is comprised of 120,500 acres (48,765 ha) in Graham and
Swain counties.
The USFS developed a Land and Resource Management Plan (1986-2000) for Nantahala and
Pisgah national forests. The plan guides natural resource management activities and
establishes management standards for the two national forests. It describes care and
protection of the land, resource management practices, outputs of goods and services, and the
availability and suitability of lands for various uses for the period from 1986 to 2000 (USDA
1987).
The plan describes the desired conditions for which the forest will be managed. They
include:
■ Provide a forest environment far the public to enjoy while complying with laws,
regulations, and procedures established for the administration of National Forest Service
(NFS) lands;
28
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
■ Provide public goods and services that satisfy short-ten�n demands while improving
program efficiency and long-term health of the forest environment;
■ Administer the forests to fulfill public needs and desires by meeting management
standards established by the Regional Guide for the South;
■ Maintain ar improve water quality through appropriate management standards;
■ Maintain or increase populations of all existing native vertebrates; and
■ Maintain the unique character of special interest and specially designated areas, including
Wilderness, research natural areas, developed recreation and scenic areas, Native
American religious sites, and significant cultural resources (USFS 1987).
The plan describes land acquisition guidelines far the forests. It states, "Land is acquired
through purchase, exchange, or donation to provide protection within wilderness and along
the Appalachian National Scenic Trail, provide recreation management opporiunities, and to
consolidate public ownership for efficient administration." In general, land is purchased or
donated from willing constituents. According to the plan, approximately 900 acres (364 ha)
are purchased each year and 400 acres (162 ha) are acquired through exchange. For future
growth, the plan dictates approximately 800 acres (324 ha) per year are planned for purchase
and about 400 acres (162 ha) will be acquired through exchange (USFS 1987).
Within the study area portion of Nantahala National Forest, there are two special day use
areas. The Tsali Recreation Area is located near the Panther Creek, Murphy Branch, Town
Branch, Mouse Branch, and Meadow Branch arms of the backwaters of Fontana Lake, north
of NC 28. Tsali is nationally known for its 42-mile (68-lan) trail system. The four-loop
network is open to hikers and horses, but the syste�n is best known as a challenging mountain
bike course. The area has a 42-site campground with accessible showers and restrooms, a
boat ramp, fishing areas, and picnic areas (USFS 2003). The Cable Cove Recreation Area is
located near the Powell Branch arm of the backwaters of Fontana Lake, north of NC 28 and
four miles (6.4 km) from Fontana Dam. This area offers boating access, camping facilities
(26 sites), and hiking trails (USFS 2003).
There are pockets of privately owned land within Nantahala National Forest. They make up
roughly 30,016 acres (12,147 ha) within the study area. These areas are mostly developed for
residential or agricultural use where the land is tillable. There is a wide network of NFS
roads within the study area constructed to support forest management and logging operations.
29
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.1.3 9rvain County
Swain County was first settled by Native Americans. Soon after the Cherokee Indian cession
of 1798, European settlement began along the Oconaluftee and Tuckasegee rivers. In 1871,
Swain became a North Carolina county, talcing land from Jackson and Macon counties.
The majority of the study area is within Swain Counry. GSMNP and Nantahala National
Forest encompass roughly 69 percent of Swain County. Because of the rural conditions and
the high percentage of land not under the jurisdiction of Swain County, no land use or zoning
regulations are in place for the counry. Accarding to county personnel, residents are hesitant
to plan land use or impose zoning regulations in an area with so much land under federal
jurisdiction.
The eastern portion of the study area includes Bryson City, Swain County's largest city. The
majority of development in Swain County occurs along major roads and highways such as
US 19, US74, and NC 28. Small communities in the Swain Counry portion of the study area
in the vicinity of Bryson City include Franklin Grove, School House Hill, Deep Creek, and
Lackey Hill. Development is predominantly residential and is constrained by topography and
the provision of public utilities.
3.1.4 Graham County
The southem portion of the study area is in Graham Counry, which was formed in 1872 from
parts of Cherokee County. The town of Robbinsville, outside the study area, is the county
seat.
Currently, there are no land use plans or regulations in effect for Graham Counry. There is no
zoning within the portions of the study area in Graham County. More than half of Grahain
County (59 percent) is under the jurisdiction of Nantahala Nationa] Forest.
Small communities in the Graham County portion of the study area include Fontana Village,
Tuskegee, Stecoah, Hidetown, Almond, Roundhill, Carson Mill, Maple Springs, Lauada, De
Hart Mill, and Jackson Line.
3.1.5 Bryson City
Bryson City, ariginally called "Charleston" by European settlers, is the Swain Counry seat
and was founded in 1887. It is along the Tuckasegee River at the base of the Cowee
Mountain Range. According to A Visitors Guide to Swain County and the Great Smoky
Mountains, by the Swain County Cbamber of Commerce, Bryson Ciry is "a quiet, restful
30
getaway ... in a beautiful natural setting, an unspoiled retreat" (Swain County websites
2003).
Bryson Ciry, like Swain and Graham
counties, does not have planning
documents to guide land use and
development. Land use in downtown
Bryson City is predominantly commercial
business mixed with some residential
development. Land use surrounding
Bryson City is predominantly scattered
large-lot residential development. Most
development is situated linearly along the
highway and main roads on non-federal
lands.
US 19 and US 74 traverse Bryson Ciry.
The main roads in Bryson City include the �owntown Bryson Gty
north-south Veterans Boulevard, which
turns into Slope Street through downtown Bryson Ciry and into Franklin Grove Cburch Road
north of town. Old NC 288, Bryson Walk, Depot Street, Locust Street, and Old River Road
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
follow the Tucicasegee River through downtown Bryson City. Fontana Road begins as
Rector Street in downtown Bryson City and becomes Everett Street to the north. At the
GSMNP boundary, Fontana Road becomes Lake View Road, known locally as "The Road to
Nowhere." It extends approximately 7.2 miles (] 1.6 km) into GSMNP, ending at the mouth
of the tunnel.
As previously states, cotnmunities in the vicinity of Bryson City include Lackey Hill, School
House Hill, Deep Creek, and Franklin Grove. All are residential areas. Lackey Hill includes
the West Care Medical Park, and the Franklin Grove Church is central to the Franklin Grove
community. School House Hill is home to the Grace Christian Academy and Swain County
Middle School. Deep Creek is a residential community along Deep Creek just north of
Lackey Hill.
The NCDOT Thoroughfare Plan for Bryson City, March 1993, indicates, "Future
development is likely to occur west of town along US 19, due to favorable water and sewer
conditions, reasonable accessibility, and topographic advantages. There is also some
potential for redevelopment and infill in the central part of town. Significant portions of the
land north of the Tuckasegee River are either inappropriately or inadequately utilized"
(NCDOT 1993).
31
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.1.6 Tennessee Valley Authority
The inception of the TVA came during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. President
Roosevelt proposed the TVA to help spur economic development by bringing affordable
power to the region. Congress passed the TVA Act on May 18, 1933. The TVA was charged
with many tasks, including conservation, public utiliry regulation, regional planning,
agricultural development, and the social and economic improvement of the people of the
Tennessee Valley (www.newdeal.feri.org 2003). Construction of the Fontana Dam started on
January 1, 1942, and Fontana Lake was created in 1944.
The most dramatic change in valley life came from the electricity generated by TVA dams
(www.tva.gov 2003). The price of electricity reached an all-time low, allowing the rural
farmers of the valley access to modern amenities. With it, modern appliances such as electric
stoves, refrigerators, and electric washing machines became more affordable, and the people
of the valley experienced a change in lifestyle that added efficiency to everyday life
(www.newdeal.feri.org 2003).
Access to modern technology did not come without a price. The affected communities
identified TVA most clearly with dam construction and the trauma of land acquisition
(USDA 1983). Some parts of the Tennessee Valley had not felt hard-hit by the depression
because the standards of living had not changed with the economic downturn. The TVA was
bringing affordable electricity to the rural farming communities of the valley; however, it did
nothing to increase the popularity of the new agency or the federal government because of the
number of families being displaced. The dam flooded areas that had been inhabited in some
cases far generations by the people of the valley. In the study area, the construction of
Fontana Dam caused the flooding of NC 288, which for some residents was their only means
in and out of the area.
Once Fontana Dam controlled the water flow of the Little Tennessee River, causing the
flooding of NC 288, residents' only means of access in and out of the area was by boat,
across the newly formed Fontana Lake. According to a June ] 4, 1984, article in The
SENTINEL, a Winston-Salem newspaper, and public comments from the North Share Road
EIS March 2003 scoping meetings, some families chose not to leave their homes until they
had no other way out than by boat.
Not everyone in the valley disapproved of TVA authority. The construction and other TVA
responsibilities brought about jobs for thousands of people in the Tennessee Valley. Villages
were established to house the workers and their families during construction of the dams.
One sucb village was Fontana, in the southwestern portion of the study area. Many of the
6,340 or so men and women wbo were assembled to build Fontana Dam called Fontana hame
for nearly three years (TVA 1996). Fontana Village became a year-round resort area for
32
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
vacationers in the ] 950s and today it is still a TVA property, operated by Government
Services Inc. (GSI). Prior to the growth of Fontana Village from the TVA dam construction,
two other Fontana Villages had been established nearby. The first was built as a logging
camp in 1906 by Montvale Lumber Company on the banks of Eagle Creek. The second, now
under the lake's waters, was located at tbe confluence of Eagle Creek and the Little
Tennessee River and was built for copper miners of the North Carolina Exploration Company
in the 1930s (Holland 200]).
Fontana Dam HistoricMarker
At 480 feet (146 m), Fontana Dam
is the highest of the TVA dams in
the valley. It has an approximate
length of 2,365 feet (721 m) and a
power generating capacity of
225,000 kilowatts. Fontana Lake
drains an area of approximately
1,005,440 acres (406,890 hectares).
The reservoir itself encompasses
roughly 11,685 acres (4,729 ha)
with 240 miles (386 km) of shoreline (TVA 1996). The TVA property encompasses the area
below 1,710 feet (52] m) above msl around Fontana Lake (USFS 2003).
The TVA land-management philosophy is guided by the mandate that states it must consider
the effects of its activities in land reclamation, public recreational use, econoinic
development, and wildlife preservation. 1'he TVA has established business principles to
support its environmental policy. These include management commitments, environmental
compliance, environmental protection and stewardship, pollution prevention and control,
partnerships and public involvement, and innovation and technology development
(www.tva.com 2003).
Environmental principles and policy adopted by the TVA board on January 24, 2001, include
the following (www.tva.com 2003):
Management Commitments
Integrate responsible environmental practices into business operations by establishing
goals, measuring progress, and reporting performance through a comprehensive
environmental management system.
Factor environmental considerations into business decisions.
33
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
■ Train TVA employees on their environmental processes and hold them accountable for
their performance.
Environmental Compliance
■ Comply with environmental laws and regulations.
■ Assess the effects of TVA operations on the environment.
■ Operate with a goal of continuous improvement.
Environmental Protection and Stewardship
■ Manage the competing demands on the river system and valley resources by optimizing
their value to diverse stakeholder interests.
■ Practice responsible environmental stewardship of the valley's natural resources.
■ Encourage customers, suppliers, and partners to do the same.
Pollution Prevention and Control
■ Minimize the effects of operations on the environment through a combination o£
- Demand-side management,
- Source reduction,
- Recycling and reuse, and
- Pollution control.
Partnerships and Public Involvement
■ Build partnerships through effective two-way communications with stakeholders and
customers.
■ Solicit and respond to public input that enables regional influence over regional
resources.
Innovation and Technology Development
■ Use integrated power system as a living laboratory to showcase energy innovations and
solutions.
■ Develop technologies and expertise to serve the public good by finding new and better
solutions for environmental protection.
34
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.2 Soaoeoonomicand Community Features
3.2.1 Demographic Profile of the Project Study Area
The 2000 U.S. Census was used to gather information on the population and demographics of
the project study area. Data from the 1990 U.S. Census were used to determine growth trends
and for comparison. United States Census Tracts 9602 and 9603 in Swain County and Tract
9801 in Graham County encompass the study area far this project. Block group data were
used for accuracy, as the block group statistical geographic area is substantially smaller than
that of the census tract. A small portion of Census Tract 9802 is included in the study area;
however, in an effort to avoid skewing the census information, data from this iract were not
utilized. Figure 7 depicts the boundaries of the Census geographies within the study area.
Census Tract 9603 includes the northwestern and southeastern portions of the study area. A
portion of Census Tract 9602 is in the northeast corner of the study area and includes nearly
the entire northern half of Bryson Ciry. Census Tract 9801 encompasses the Graham County
portion of the study area.
3.2.1.1 Fbpulation Growth Trends
According to U.S. Census data, the populations ofNorth Carolina, Swain County, Graham
County and Bryson City all experienced growth from ] 990 to 2000. Bryson City saw an
increase in population of 23.2 percent, whicb is comparable with the statewide increase of
21.4 percent. The changes in county populations were significantly lower, at 15.1 percent for
Swain County and 11.1 percent for Graham County. Census Tract 9602 in Swain County
experienced half the rate of the county's growth with 7.9 percent. Block Group 9602-002
(Census Tract numer, Block Group number) actually decreased in population by 2.4 percent
and Block Group 9602-001 only increased by 3.3 percent. Block Group 9602-003 includes
the northwest portion of Bryson City. The 10-year growth rate for Block Group 9602-003
was a 212 percent increase, which is comparable to Bryson City's and North Carolina's
growth. The majority of Bryson City is encompassed by Block Group 9603-003, which
experienced comparable growth at 24.5 percent. Census Tract 9801, located on the southern
side of Fontana Lake in Graham Counry, experienced a 40.2 percent increase in population
from 1990 to 2000, nearly double the state's increase. Table 11 below depicts the percent of
population change at the state, counry, place, census tract, and block group levels between
1990 and 2000.
Trends over the last decade for the study area include the following:
A high growth rate was exhibited in the southwest portion of the study area, south of NC
28 in Census Tract 9801.
35
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
■ Within Bryson City, the northwest and southwest quadrants experienced higher growth
rates.
■ Very limited growth occurred north, west, and northwest of the Bryson City limits.
■ Census Tract 9603 includes a portion of the study area in GSMNP, a portion of the study
area south of the Tuckasegee River and east of the Little Tennessee River, as well as a
large portion of land south of the study area. Growth in this census tract occurred only
in its southern portions, outside of GSMNP.
Table 11
1990-2000 Population Growth for State, County, Plaoe, CensusTract, and Blodc Group
Category population Population Increase % Change
North Carolina 6,628,637 8,049,313 1,420,676 21.4
9�vain County 11,268 12,968 1,700 15.1
Bryson City 1,145 1,411 266 23.2
Graham County 7,196 7,993 797 11.1
Tract 9602 2,726 2,941 215 7.9
Blodc Group 1 979 1,011 32 3.3
Blodc Group 2 794 775 -19 -2.4
Blodc Group 3 953 1,155 202 21.2
Tract 9603 4,696 5,562 866 18.4
Blodc Group 2 1,419 1,655 236 16.6
Blodc Group 3 885 1,102 217 24.5
Blodc Group 4 813 884 71 8.7
Blodc Group 5 657 755 98 14.9
Blodc Group 6 693 885 192 27.7
Tract 9801 1,407 1,972 565 402
Blodc Group 1 371 516 145 39.1
Blodc Group 2 441 484 43 9.8
Blodc Group 3 595 984 389 65.4
Source: 2000 and 1990 U.S Census
36
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.2.1.2 Ethnicity and Race
Using 1990 census data, a breakdown of the ethnicity and racial characteristics at the state,
county, place, tract, and block group level was completed and is shown in Table 12. The
percentage as a part of eacb population total is shown in parenthesis for each ethnicity. The
same information using 2000 census data is shown in Table l3.
Table 12
�hniaty and Race by State, County, Plaoe, Census Tract, and Blodc Group for 1990
American Asian or
Category Total y�►hite g�a� Indian, papfic Other race
Population E�kimo, or Islander
Aleut
North Carolina
9�vain County
Bryson City
Graham County
Trad 9602
Blodc Group 1
Blodc Group 2
Blodc Group 3
Tract 9603
Blodc Group 2
Blodc Group 3
Blodc Group 4
Blodc Group 5
Blodc Group 6
Tract 9801
Blodc Group 1
Blodc Group 2
Blodc Group 3
Source: 1990 U.S� Census
6,628,637
11,268
1,145
7,196
2,726
979
794
953
4,696
1,419
885
813
657
693
1,407
371
441
595
5,008,491
(75.6% )
7,950 (70.6%)
1,064 (92.9%)
6,731 (93.5%)
2,602 (95.5%)
934 (95.4%)
771 (97.1 % )
897 (94.1 % )
4,395 (93.6%)
1,264 (89.1%)
797 (90.1 % )
792 (97.4°/a )
652 (99.2°/a )
690 (99.6°/a )
1,389 (98.7%)
362 (97.6%)
435 (98.6%)
592 (99.5%)
1,456,323
(22.0% )
196 (1.7%)
4 (0.3%)
1 (0.0%)
27 (1.0%)
1 (0.1%)
0 (0.0%)
26 (2.7%)
14 (0.3%)
4 (0.3%)
4 (0.5%)
6 (0.7%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
80,155
(1.2%)
3,075 (27.3%)
64 (5.6%)
454 (6.3%)
93 (3.4%)
44 (4.5%)
20 (2.5%)
29 (3.0%)
269 (5.7%)
149 (10.5°/a )
71 (8.0%)
15 (1.8°/a )
5 (0.8%)
1 (0.1%)
18 (1.3%)
9 (2.4%)
6 (1.4%)
3 (0.5%)
52,166
(0.8% )
31 (0.3%)
12 (1.0%)
6 (0.1%)
3 (0.1%)
0 (0.0%)
3 (0.4%)
0 (0.0%)
15 (0.3%)
0 (0.0%)
12 (1.4%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0°/a )
2 (0.3%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
31,502
(0.5% )
16 (0.1%)
1 (0.1%)
4 (0.1%)
1 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
1 (0.1%)
3 (0.1%)
2 (0.1%)
1 (0.1%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
37
Hispanic
origin (of
any rac�e)
76,726
(1.2% )
78 (0.7%)
6 (0.5%)
29 (0.4%)
13 (0.5%)
5 (0.5%)
5 (0.6%)
3 (0.3%)
13 (0.3%)
4 (0.3%)
6 (0.7%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
3 (0.4%)
7 (0.5%)
3 (0.8%)
1 (0.2%)
3 (0.5%)
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 13
�hniaty and Raoe by State, County, Place, Census Tract, and Blodc Group for 2000
Native
American Hispanic
�ack or Hawaiian Some Two or
Total Indian, or or Latino
Category pepulation White African Alaska Asian or other other raoe more of any
American Native Pacific alone races raoe
Islander
NorthCarolina 8,049,313 5804,656 1,737,545 99,551 113,689 3,983 186,629 103,260 378,963
(72.1%) (21.6%) (1.2%) (1.4%) (0.0%) (2.3%) (1.3%) (4.7%)
9evain County 12,968 8602 221 (1.7°/o ) 3,765 (29.0°/o ) 20 (02°/o ) 1 (0.0% ) 63 (0.5°/o ) 296 (2.3°/o ) 191 (1.5°/o )
(66.3% )
Bryson City 1411 1 283 28 (2.0°/a ) 70 (5.0°/a ) 5 (0.4% ) 0 (0.0% ) 9 (0.6% ) 16 (1.1 °/a ) 24 (1.7°/a )
(90.9% )
Graham County 7,993 7,346 15 (0.2°/o) 547 (6.8°/o) 13 (0.2%) 1(0.0%) 10 (0.1%) 61 (0.8%) 60 (0.8°/o)
(91.9°/a )
Tract 9602 2,941 2'693 30 (1.0°/o ) 164 (5.6°/o ) 3 (0.1 % ) 1 (0.0% ) 18 (0.6°/o ) 32 (1.1 °/o ) 17 (0.6°/o )
(91.6% )
Block Group 1 1,011 �90 �a� 0(0.0%) 75 (7.4°/a) 5(0.5%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 21 (2.1°/a) 6(0.6%)
Block Group 2 775 �96 69a� 0(0.0%) 26 (3.4°/a) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 4(0.5%)
Block Group 3 1,155 1,052 25 (2.2°/a) 59 (5.1°/a) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 19 (1.6°/a) 7(0.6%)
(91.1%)
Tract 9603 5,562 4,969 53 (1.0°/o ) 428 (7.7°/o ) 12 (0.2°/o ) 0 (0.0% ) 22 (0.4°/o ) 78 (1.4°/o ) 73 (1.3°/o )
(89.3 /a )
BIoCk Group 2 1,655 (8432%) 32 (1.9%) 205 (12.4%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 7(0.4%) 18 (1.1%) 20 (1.2%)
BlockGroup3 1,102 �846�a� 45(4.1°/a) 67(6.1°/a) 4(0.4%) 0(0.0%) 36(3.3°/a) 18(1.6°/a) 24(2.2°/a)
Block Group 4 884 �96 � �a� 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 29 (3.3%) 17 (1.9°/a)
Blodc Group 5 755 �90$ �a� 39 (5.2°/a) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 31 (4.1%) 10 (1.3°/a)
Block Group 6 885 (100.0°/a) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 2(0.2%)
Tract 9801 1,972 �9795 �o � 3 (0.2% ) 28 (1.4°/o ) 5 (0.3% ) 0 (0.0% ) 2 (0.1 % ) 12 (0.6% ) 20 (1.0°/o )
Block Group 1 516 �89 3o�a� 0(0.0%) 23 (4.5%) 32 (6.2°/a) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 9(1.7%)
Block Group 2 484 �96 5 �a� 0(0.0%) 17 (3.5°/a) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 1(0.2%)
Block Group 3 984 (96 380) 0(0.0%) 19 (1.9°/a) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 0(0.0%) 17 (1.7%) 10 (1.0°/a)
Souroe: 2000 U.S� Census
38
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
According to U.S. Census data, the majority of the populations of North Carolina and of
Graham and Swain counties is racially white. North Carolina has an American Indian and
Alaska Native population of 1.2 percent, which is consistent from 1990. Graham County and
Bryson Ciry have a higher percentage at 6.8 percent and 5.0 percent, respectively. According
to the 2000 U.S. Census, nearly on�third of Swain County residents were classified as
American Indian or Alaska Natives. These percentages are slightly higher than those in the
1990 census data. Based on the 2000 census geographical information, higher concentrations
of American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleutians are within Census Tract 9603, Block Groups 2 and
3, which are soutb of Bryson City. The Black or African American population in 2000
remained similar to 1990 data, with less than 2 percent of the population at the county and
census tract level, as compared to 21.6 percent of the state's population.
3.2.1.3 Income Levels
The FHWA's "Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority and Low-Income
Populations" in compliance with EO 12898 dated February 11, 1994, defines low-income as
a household income at or below the Departinent of Health and Human Services (DHHS)
poverty guidelines. For the purposes of this analysis, census poverty thresholds were used
rather than poverty guidelines of the DHHS in that there is very little difference between the
United States Bureau of the Census poverty thresholds (by household size) and the DHHS
poverty guidelines (by household size), and the poverry thresholds are updated each year by
the Census Bureau. Associated demographic data were collected and classified into degrees
of poverty accarding to the United States Bureau of the Census poveriy thresholds. The
weighted average poverty threshold for 1999, according to the census, is an annual income of
$17,029 for a family of four.
Household income levels within the study area for 1999 can be found in Table 14. Also
shown in Table 14 is the percentage of the total number of households each income level
comprises. According to the U.S. Census, 6.3 percent of North Carolina families were living
below the poverty level in 1999. A higher percentage of the population of Swain and
Graham counties was living below the poveriy level, with 9.5 percent in Swain County and
10.5 percent in Graham County. In the study area, the census tracts had a poverty level of
just below 8 percent. However, at the block group level, the poverty level rates vary
drastically from Block Group 9602-002 at 2.9 percent to nearly 20 percent in Block Group
9801-003.
The median household income for the state is $39,184. Swain and Graham counties have
substantially lower median household incomes of $28,608 and $26,645, respectively. Bryson
City's median household income is lower at $23,232. The census tracts' median household
incomes are similar to the counties with $28,785 for Census Tract 9602, $30,033 for Census
Tract 9603, and $27,008 for Census Tract 9801. Blocic Group 9603-006 had a median
39
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
household income that was significantly higher than the remainder of the shidy area and very
close to the North Carolina average at $40,673.
Table 14
Inc�ome Levels and Poverty Status for Households in the Study Region for
1999
Category North y�ain County Bryson City Graham Trad 9602 �odc Blodc Blodc
Carolina County Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Total Number of Households 3,133,282
(family and non-family)
Family households below Wverty 6.3%
Level (as a% of total households)
Lessthan $10,000 328,770
(10.5%)
$10,000 to $14,999 201,123
(6.4°/a )
$15,000 to $24,999 431,701
(13.8%)
$25,000 to $34,999 435,975
(13.9°/a )
$35,000 to $49,999 553,041
(17.7%)
$50,000 to $74,999 608,777
(19.4%)
$75,000 to $99,999 2�9,020
(8.9°/a )
$100,000 to $149,000 188,621
(6.0% )
$150,000 to $199,999 50,650
(1.6%)
$200,000 or more 55,604
(1.8°/a )
5,131
J.5%
743
(14.5%)
525
(102°/a )
1015
(19.8%)
688
(13.4%)
983
(19.2°/a )
692
(13.5°/a )
288
(5.6°/a )
121
(2.4% )
45
(0.9% )
31
(0.6% )
578 3.375
8.0% 10.4%
114 630
(19.7°/a ) (18.7°/a )
62 414
(10.7°/a ) (12.3°/a )
142 556
(24.6%) (16.5%)
67 501
(11.6%) (14.8%)
86 583
(14.9°/a ) (17.3°/a )
55 425
(9.5°/a ) (12.6°/a )
29 151
(5.0°/a ) (4.5°/a )
17 85
(2.9%) (2.5%)
0 27
(0.0%) (0.8%)
6 3
(1.0°/a ) (0.1 °/a )
1,277 421 385 471
6.4% 7.$% 2.9% $.�%
178 57 56 65
(13.9°/a ) (13.5°/a ) (14.5°/a ) (13.8°/a )
130 50 48 32
(10.2°/a) (11.9°/a) (12.5%) (6.8%)
269 82 67 120
(21.1%) (19.5%) (17.4%) (25.5%)
(14$%) (1 8%) (18.2�%) (1159%)
239 82 56 101
(18.7°/a ) (19.5°/a ) (14.5°/a ) (21.4°/a )
199 65 65 69
(15.6°/a ) (15.4°/a ) (16.9°/a ) (14.6°/a )
44 14 14 16
(3.4°/a ) (3.3°/a ) (3.6°/a ) (3.4°/a )
26 8 9 9
(2.0°/a ) (1.9°/a ) (2.3°/a ) (1.9°/a )
3 3 0 0
(0.2%) (0.7%) (0.0%) (0.0%)
9 6 0 3
(0.7°/a ) (1.4°/a ) (0.0°/a ) (0.6°/a )
Median Household Income $39,184 $26,608 $23,232 $26,645 $28,785 $30,313 $26,734 $30,298
Source: 2000 U.S� Census
40
Table 14 (Continued)
Inoome Levels and Poverty Status for Households in the Study Region for 1999
Category Trad 9603 �odc Block Block Block Block
Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6
Total Number of
Households (family and
non-family)
Family households below
Wverty Level (as a % of
total households)
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Trad 9801 �ock Block Block
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
►�c� ��c�r� y � ��:i:�ci � �xr� � r���z ����� � i���
7.6% 4.8% 7.7% 5.2% 11.4% 10.4% � 7.9% 8.3% 15.8% 19.8%
Lessthan $10,000 293
(12.6%)
$10,000 to $14,999 235
(10.1 °/a )
$15,000 to $24,999 42�
(18.4°/a )
$25,000 to $34,999 343
(14.8%)
$35,000 to $49,999 519
(22.4°/a )
$50,000 to $74,999 26$
(11.6%)
$75,000 to $99,999 140
(6.0% )
$100,000 to $149,000 50
(2.2% )
$150,000 to $199,999 22
(0.9% )
$200,000 or more 22
(0.9% )
Median Household Income $30,033
Source: 2000 U.S� Census
31 74 60 59 52 127 22 35
(4.4%) (17.9%) (15.5%) (17.3%) (15.4%) (14.6%) (9.2%) (15.8%)
86 50 65 26 8 101 29 15
(12.2°/a) (12.1%) (16.8°/a) (7.6°/a) (2.4%) (11.6%) (12.1%) (6.8%)
160 85 72 44 49 158 51 48
(22.6°/a ) (20.5°/a ) (18.7°/a ) (12.9°/a ) (14.5%) (18.2°/a ) (21.3%) (21.7%)
104 46 43 92 50 156 58 43
(14.7%) (11.1%) (11.1%) (27.0%) (14.8%) (17.9%) (24.2%) (19.5%)
139 71 73 87 83 124 14 35
(19.7°/a ) (17.1 °/a ) (18.9°/a ) (25.5°/a ) (24.6°/a ) (14.3°/a ) (5.8%) (15.8°/a )
77 28 73 26 47 93 26 20
(10.9%) (6.8%) (18.9%) (7.6%) (13.9%) (10.7%) (10.8%) (9.0%)
56 36 0 7 32 65 24 14
(7.9°/a ) (8.7°/a ) (0.0°/a ) (2.1 °/a ) (9.5% ) (7.5°/a ) (10.0°/a ) (6.3°/a )
35 15 0 0 0 36 16 4
(5.0%) (3.6%) (0.0%) (0.0%) (0.0%) (4.1%) (6.7%) (1.8%)
3 3 0 0 16 7 0 7
(0.4%) (0.7%) (0.0%) (0.0%) (4.7%) (0.8%) (0.0%) (3.2%)
16 6 0 0 0 3 0 0
(2.3%) (1.4°/a) (0.0%) (0.0°/a) (0.0%) (0.3°/a) (0.0%) (0.0%)
$31,490 $24,821 $24,412 $29,961 $40,673 $27,008 $28,448 $26,448
41
70
(17.1%)
57
(13.9°/a )
59
(14.4%)
55
(13.4%)
75
(18.3°/a )
47
(11.5°/a )
27
(6.6°/a )
16
(3.9% )
0
(0.0% )
3
(0.7% )
$26,850
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Trends in income levels evident for the study area include the following:
The areas north and south of Bryson City have a higher median household income than
Bryson City and the area just west of the city. These areas with higher median
household income levels also exhibited slower growth rates over the past decade.
Block Group 9603-006, which includes a portion of the study area in GSMNP, exhibited
the highest median household income of the study area. Since the park is uninhabited by
people, this statistic likely reflects the area south of GSMNP as well as the area south of
the study area.
Nearly the entire study area population has a higher rate of people living below the
poveriy level when compared with the statewide average of 63 percent. Block Group
9801-003 depicted the highest percent of the population living below the poverty level
of the study area census geographies. Block Group 9801-003 also exhibited over 65
percent growth between 1990 and 2000.
3.2.1.4 Housing
According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 88.9 percent of housing units in North Carolina are
occupied, 69.4 percent by the owner. In Swain and Graham counties, 72.3 percent and 66
percent, respectively, are occupied, with 76.8 percent and 82.7 percent occupied by the
owner. The percentage of vacant units in the study area is higber than in North Carolina as a
whole. This can be explained by the high percentage of seasonal, recreational, or occasional-
use units. In North Carolina, only 3.8 percent of vacant units are in this category. In Swain
and Graham counties, 18 percent and 26.6 percent, respectively, of vacant units are for
seasonal use. In Block Group 9801-001, with 61.3 percent vacant units, 91.2 percent are for
seasonal use. Census Tract 9801 as a whole has nearly 90 percent of vacant units for
seasonal, recreational, or occasional use. Census Tract 9603 is also high with 69.8 percent.
Except for Bryson City, with 41.8 percent renter-occupied units, the study area has a lower
rate of renters than the state. Occupancy rates are shown in Table 15.
42
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 15
Housing Unitsfor 2000
Total For seasonal,
Owner-Oacupied Renter-Oocupied
Housing Total Oocupied o o Total Vacant rea-eational, or
Category Units (/o of Units (/o of
Units (Vacant Units Units occasional use (% of
or Oocupied) oocupied units) occxapied units) vacant units)
North Carolina 3,523,944 3 132,013 2,172,355 959,658 391,931 134,870
(88.9°/a ) (69.4°/a ) (30.6°/a ) (11.1 °/a ) (3.8°/a )
9evainCounty 7,105 5,137(72.3°/o) 3,946(76.8°/o) 1,191 (23.2°/o) 1,968(27.7°/o) 1,281 (18.0°/o)
Bryson City 713 588 (82.5°/a ) 342 (58.2°/a ) 246 (41.8% ) 125 (17.5°/a ) 28 (3.9°/a )
Graham County 5,084 3,354 (66.0°/o) 2,773 (82.7°/o) 581 (17.3%) 1,730 (34.0%) 1,350 (26.6°/o)
TraCt 9602 1,721 1,279 (74.3%) 956 (74.7%) 323 (25.3%) 442 (25.7%) 254 (57.5%)
Block Group 1 647 427 (66.0%) 348 (81.5°/a) 79 (18.5°/a) 220 (34.0%) 143 (65.0%)
Block Group 2 489 359 (73.4% ) 255 (71.0°/a ) 104 (29.0°/a ) 130 (26.6°/a ) 81 (62.3°/a )
Block Group 3 585 493 (84.3°/a ) 353 (71.6% ) 140 (28.4°/a ) 92 (15.7°/a ) 30 (32.6°/a )
Tract 9603 3,590 2,324 (64.7°/o) 1,815 (78.1%) 509 (21.9°/o) 1,266 (35.3°/o) 884 (69.8°/o)
Block Group 2 1,141 713 (62.5%) 582 (81.6°/a) 131 (18.4°/a) 438 (37.5%) 307 (71.7°/a)
Block Group 3 521 431 (82.7°/a ) 270 (62.6°/a ) 161 (37.4°/a ) 90 (17.3°/a ) 31 (34.4°/a )
Block Group 4 576 373 (64.8°/a ) 327 (87.7°/a ) 46 (12.3°/a ) 203 (35.2°/a ) 154 (75.9% )
Block Group 5 498 322 (64.7°/a ) 270 (83.9°/a ) 52 (16.1 °/a ) 176 (35.3°/a ) 113 (64.2% )
Block Group 6 697 360 (51.6°/a ) 277 (76.9°/a ) 83 (23.1 °/a ) 337 (48.4°/a ) 264 (78.3°/a )
TraCt 9801 1,912 859 (44.9% ) 771 (89.8% ) 88 (10.2% ) 1,053 (55.1 % ) 934 (88.7% )
BIoCk Group 1 591 229 (38.7%) 201 (87.8%) 28 (12.2%) 362 (61.3%) 330 (91.2%)
Block Group 2 335 211 (63.0% ) 192 (91.0°/a ) 19 (9.0°/a ) 124 (37.0°/a ) 100 (80.6% )
Block Group 3 986 419 (42.5% ) 378 (90.2°/a ) 41 (9.8°/a ) 567 (57.5°/a ) 504 (88.9% )
Source: 2000 U.S� Census
43
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
The 2000 U. S. Census provided information regarding tenure of homes in the study area.
Tenure indicates the length of time a population has lived in their homes. It can be an
indicator as to the age or the migratory nature of a population. The census data show that
tenure in the study area is very comparable to the state. The largest percentage of
householders in North Carolina, Swain and Graham counties, and Bryson City moved into
their homes between 1995 and l 998. Block Groups 9603-004, 9603-005, and 9801-003 all
had their highest percentages of residents in their homes before 1990. Block Group 9801-002
had a quarter of its population move into their homes before 1970. Nearly 44 percent of
Block Group 9603-005 has lived in their homes since before 1980. Table 16 shows tenure of
households in North Carolina and the study area.
Table 17 depicts the values of specified owner-occupied units. The median value of homes in
the study area is lower than the state median value of $108,300. Tl�e majority ofhomes in
North Carolina, Swain and Graham counties, and Census Tracts 9602, 9603 and 980] are
valued below $100,000. Block Group 9603-006 bas a median home value of $125,900, well
above the state average. This could be explained by the short tenure of residents in the area;
most have moved in since 1999. Block Group 9801-003 has a lower median home value than
the rest of the study area at $69,800, which could be a result of a more mature tenure, since
most residents moved in prior to 1980.
Trends in housing statistics from the U.S. Census include:
The median value of homes throughout the study area census geographies are low when
compared with the statewide average.
Block Group 9603-006 had the highest median home value for the study area. The
majority of development in this block group is located south of Fontana Lake and south
of the study area along the Little Tennessee and Nantahala rivers. Block Group 9603-
006 also had the highest median household income in the study area and a growth rate
slightly higher than the statewide average.
Block Group 9801-003 had a low median home value compared with the state and the
study area. This block group had a large percentage of the population living below the
poverty level, low median household income, and the highest growth rate for the study
area.
The number of vacant units used for seasonal, recreational, or occasional use in the
study area is substantially higher than the statewide average. Nearly all of the block
groups within the study area had over half of their vacant housing units inhabited on a
seasonal basis.
44
■ Bryson City and Block Group 9603-003 have a larger percentage of renter-occupied
housing units compared with the rest of the study area.
Category
North Carolina
9rvain County
Bryson Clty
Graham County
Tract 9602
Block Group 1
Block Group 2
Block Group 3
Tract 9603
Block Group 2
Block Group 3
Block Group 4
Block Group 5
Block Group 6
Tract 9801
Block Group 1
Block Group 2
Block Group 3
Source: 2000 U.S Census
Table 16
Housing Tenure for 2000
Oacupied 1999 to
Housing Units March 2000
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Year Householder Moved into Unit
1995 to 1990 to 1980 to 1 1970 to 1969 or
1998 1994 989 1979 earlier
3,132,013 652,745 (20.8% ) 910,690 (29.1 % ) 479,481 (15.3% ) 458,864 (14.7% ) 303,106 (9.7% ) 327,127 (10.4%
5,137 718 (14.0°/a ) 1,179 (23.0°/a ) 890 (17.3°/a ) 969 (18.9°/a ) 760 (14.8°/a ) 621 (12.1 °/a )
584 128 (21.9%) 136 (23.3%) 98 (16.8%) 76 (13.0%) 81 (13.9%) 65 (11.1%)
3,354 435 (13.0°/a ) 767 (22.9°/a ) 485 (14.5°/a ) 634 (18.9°/a ) 530 (15.8% ) 503 (15.0°/a )
1,279 189 (14.8%) 316 (24.7%) 188 (14.7%) 211 (16.5%) 198 (15.5%) 177 (13.8%)
423 74 (17.5°/a ) 91 (21.5°/a ) 85 (20.1 °/a ) 55 (13.0°/a ) 59 (13.9°/a ) 59 (13.9°/a )
363 55 (15.2°/a ) 96 (26.4°/a ) 39 (10.7°/a ) 59 (16.3°/a ) 70 (19.3°/a ) 44 (12.1 °/a )
493 60 (12.2%) 129 (26.2%) 64 (13.0%) 97 (19.7%) 69 (14.0%) 74 (15.0%)
2,324 347 (14.9°/a ) 478 (20.6°/a ) 431 (18.5°/a ) 415 (17.9°/a ) 355 (15.3°/a ) 298 (12.8°/a )
717 90 (12.6%) 180 (25.1%) 164 (22.9%) 94 (13.1%) 111 (15.5%) 78 (10.9%)
434 78 (18.0%) 90 (20.7%) 106 (24.4%) 57 (13.1%) 51 (11.8%) 52 (12.0%)
367 62 (16.9°/a ) 58 (15.8°/a ) 31 (8.4°/a ) 95 (25.9°/a ) 79 (21.5°/a ) 42 (11.4°/a )
319 14 (4.4°/a ) 71 (22.3°/a ) 16 (5.0°/a ) 77 (24.1 % ) 66 (20.7°/a ) 75 (23.5°/a )
356 86 (24.2°/a ) 57 (16.0°/a ) 87 (24.4°/a ) 83 (23.3% ) 20 (5.6% ) 23 (6.5°/a )
857 97 (11.3%) 275 (32.1%) 94 (11.0%) 110 (12.8%) 145 (16.9%) 136 (15.9%)
224 51 (22.8%) 94 (42.0%) 26 (11.6%) 13 (5.8%) 9(4.0%) 31 (13.8%)
209 12 (5.7°/a ) 60 (28.7°/a ) 25 (12.0°/a ) 40 (19.1 °/a ) 19 (9.1 °/a ) 53 (25.4°/a )
424 34 (8.0%) 121 (28.5%) 43 (10.1%) 57 (13.4%) 117 (27.6%) 52 (12.3%)
45
Category
North Carolina
S�eafied
owner-
oocupied
units
1,615,713
9rvain Co. 2,490
BrySOn City 237
Graham Co. 1,563
Tract 9602 672
Block Group 1 230
Block Group 2 185
Block Group 3 257
Tract 9603 1,075
Block Group 2 313
Block Group 3 184
Block Group 4 215
Block Group 5 158
Block Group 6 146
Tract 9801 441
Block Group 1 105
Block Group 2 111
Block Group 3 225
Source: 2000 U.S� Census
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 17
Housing Values (Owner-Occupied) for 2000
Lessthan $50,000 to $100,000 to $150,000 to $200,000 to $300,000 or Median
$50,000 $99,999 $149,999 $199,999 $299,999 more Value
140,292 591,362 421,786
(8.7% ) (36.6°/a ) (26.1 °/a )
495 (19.9°/a ) 1,001 (40.2°/a ) 557 (22.4°/a )
23 (9.7%) 125 (52.7%) 36 (15.2%)
412 (26.4% ) 700 (44.8°/a ) 204 (13.1 °/a )
91 (13.5%) 275 (40.9%) 176 (26.2%)
38 (16.5°/a) 106 (46.1°/a) 39 (17.0%)
22 (11.9°/a ) 72 (38.9°/a ) 58 (31.4°/a )
31 (12.1 °/a ) 97 (37.7°/a ) 79 (30.7°/a )
240 (22.3% ) 415 (38.6°/a ) 213 (19.8°/a )
63 (20.1 °/a ) 128 (40.9°/a ) 54 (17.3°/a )
24 (13.0°/a ) 101 (54.9°/a ) 21 (11.4°/a )
93 (43.3%) 35 (16.3%) 65 (30.2%)
24 (15.2% ) 75 (47.5°/a ) 26 (16.5°/a )
8 (5.5% ) 45 (30.8°/a ) 47 (322°/a )
107 (24.3% ) 204 (46.3°/a ) 68 (15.4°/a )
14 (13.3%) 78 (74.3%) 7 (6.7%)
21 (18.9°/a ) 45 (40.5°/a ) 26 (23.4°/a )
72 (32.0°/a ) 81 (36.0°/a ) 35 (15.6°/a )
219,174
(13.6°/a )
206 (8.3%)
30 (12.7°/a )
119 (7.6°/a )
63 (9.4%)
30 (13.0°/a )
7 (3.8%)
26 (10.1 °/a )
84 (7.8°/a )
20 (6.4%)
16 (8.7°/a )
12 (5.6%)
8 (5.1%)
28 (19.2°/a )
31 (7.0°/a )
6 (5.7%)
13 (11.7°/a )
12 (5.3°/a )
152,531
(9.4%)
150 (6.0°/a )
15 (6.3%)
93 (6.0%)
50 (7.4%)
10 (4.3°/a )
22 (11.9°/a )
18 (7.0°/a )
66 (6.1 °/a )
20 (6.4°/a )
11 (6.0°/a )
0 (0.0%)
17 (10.8°/a )
18 (12.3%)
20 (4.5°/a )
0 (0.0%)
6 (5.4%)
14 (6.2°/a )
90, 568
(5.6°/a )
81 (3.3°/a )
8 (3.4%)
35 (2.3°/a )
17 (2.5%)
7 (3.0%)
4 (2.2%)
6 (2.3%)
57 (5.3°/a )
28 (9.0°/a )
11 (6.0°/a )
10 (4.7°/a )
8 (5.1 % )
0 (0.0%)
11 (2.5°/a )
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
11 (4.9°/a )
46
$108,300.00
$86,800.00
$84,400.00
$76,100.00
$93,900.00
$79,400.00
$99,400.00
$100,200.00
$87,000.00
$90,400.00
$80,800.00
$80,500.00
$84,600.00
$125,900.00
$76,000.00
$74,600.00
$86,000.00
$69,800.00
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.2.2 Environmental Justice
3.2.2.1 Regulations
The term Environmental Justice embodies the concept that everyone within the United States
deserves equal protection under the country's laws. In 1994, President Clinton signed
Executive Order (EO) 12898, which explains the federal government's commitment to
promote environmental justice. All federal agencies were directed to incorporate EO 12898
into their programs, policies, and procedures. The FHWA has provided guidance addressing
three principles. The three principles of Environmental Justice are to avoid, minimize, or
mitigate disproportionately high and adverse human health and environmental effects,
including social and economic effects, on minority populations and low-income populations;
to ensure the full and fair participation by all potentially affected communities in the
transportation decision-making process; and to prevent the denial of, reduction in, or
significant delay in the receipt of benefits by minarity and low-income populations (FHWA
2000b).
In addition to EO 12898 on Environmental Justice, Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
makes it illegal to show discrimination in the conduct of all federal activities. More
specifically, Title VI states that, "No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race,
color, or national origin be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be
subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial
assistance" (FHWA 2000).
3.2.2.2 CensusData and Other 3atistics
Although the study area is predominantly a homogeneous population of Caucasians, census
data show a higher percentage of American Indian or Alaska Natives inhabiting the study
area census geographies when compared with the North Carolina percentage. U.S. Census
data show Graham and Swain counties have substantially lower median household incomes
compared with the state. In addition, Graham Counry's monthly unemployment rates for
May 2002 through May 2003 were higher than the statewide average. Swain County's
monthly unemployment rates for the same periof were approximately at or above the
statewide average. Household income data gathered from the U.S. Census indicate Graham
and Swain counties also exhibit a higher percentage of the population living below the
poverty level, as well as lower median value of homes when compared with the state. The
North Carolina Department of Commerce Economic Development Information System
(EDIS) indicates that less than half of the populations of Graham and Swain counties are in
the labor force, and weelcly earnings for agriculture, construction, finance/insurance/real
estate, government, manufacturing, retail trade, wholesale trade, service, and
47
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
transportation/communications/public utilities industries are all lower than the statewide
earnings (EDIS 2001).
The study area has a large percentage of federally owned lands. When these federal
purchases occurred in the early 1900s, a decline in population followed. U.S. Census data
show that the population densiry for the year 2000 in Graham and Swain counties was
approximately four to seven people per acre higher than it was in 1900 (US Census 2000; FS-
380 1983). According to Mountaineers and Rangers, A History of Federal Forest
Management in the Southern Appalachians 1900-81, the greatest migration losses (40 percent
or more) from 1940 to 1950 included Swain County (USDA 1983).
To illustrate the change in population over the last century, Table 18 and the associated graph
depict population change for Graham and Swain counties as compared with North Carolina.
Sharp declines in population were experienced during several periods for both Swain and
Graham counties. For Swain County, the graph illustrates these departures from growth
occurred generally during the years 1920 to 1930, 1940 to 1950, and 1970 to 1980. Graham
County exhibited similar statistics, but to a lesser degree, while North Carolina maintained a
steady rate of population growth ranging from approximately 10 percent to 20 percent per
decade.
Table 18
Population Change Between 1900 and 2000
Census Population Year Peroent Census Population Year Peroent Census Population Year Percent
Geography Change Geography Change Geography Change
9rvain 8,401 1900 Graham
County 10,403 +23.83 �OUnty
13,224 +27.12
11,568 -12.52
12,177 +5.26
9,921 -18.53
8,387 -15.46
7,861 -6.27
10,283 +30.81
11,268 +g.58
12,968 +15.09
Source: U.� Census
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
4,343
4,749
4,872
5,841
6,418
6,886
6,432
6,562
7,217
7,196
7,993
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
+9.35
+2.59
+19.89
+9.88
+7.29
-6.59
+2.02
+9.98
-0.29
+11.08
North
Carolina
189,3810
2,206,287
2,559,123
3,170,276
3,571,623
4,061,929
4,556,155
5,082,059
5,881,766
6,628,637
8,049,313
48
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
+16.50
+15.99
+23.88
+12.66
+13.73
+12.17
+11.54
+15.74
+12.70
+21.43
�
°..
m
a�
c
�
�
U
w
c
a�
�
L
�
a
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
-10.00
-GO.oO
-30.00
Population Change Between 1900 and 2000
0 0 o v�°n c°o r°� °w rn°o
rn rn rn rn rn rn a� a� rn o
.- .- .- r .- .- .- � � N
Year
Source: U.S. Census
� � Swain County
�Graham County
North Carolina
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Within the study area in Graham and Swain counties, the majariry of federal lands are under
the jurisdiction of the NPS, the USFS, and the TVA. Economic development during World
War II and the continuing expansion of TVA programs in the Tennessee Valley area have
contributed to economic benefits in the region. However, people had to move to urban
industrial centers to participate in inost of these economic opportunities (USDA 1983).
3.2.2.3 Effectson the Economy
The study area is in the southern Appalachians, inhabited historically by a self-sustaining and
low-income population, owing to the isolation of the area. Most of the early settlers fanned
the land far a living or grew enough to feed tbeir families. Steep mountainous terrain and
severe erosion made the land less than ideal for agricultural use. Logging operations brought
a boom to the economy of the southern Appalachians through the 1920s. During the years of
the Great Depression, involvement by federal agencies was greatly increased in the southern
Appalachian highlands. Public welfare and employment programs were established under the
administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal programs. Studies showed that in
North Carolina, people living in the mountain region enjoyed a comfortable standard of living
when they were able to combine subsistence farming with part-time employment off the farm
(USDA 1983).
Federally owned lands are excluded from the tax base for local jurisdictions. Swain County
has roughly 80 percent of its land under federal jurisdiction, while Graham County has over
50 percent under federal jurisdiction. Warkforce statistics fram the North Carolina
49
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Department of Commerce show the government employs nearly 22 percent of the workforce
in Graham County and nearly 16 percent of the worlcforce in Swain County.
3.2.2.4 Effectson the F�ople
Incidents involving allegedly unfair treatment predate federal regulations that now protect the
rights of minoriry and low-income populations, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and EO
12898. These issues have contributed to anti-government sentiment in the area today. One
such incident was the "Trail of Tears" of tbe Native Americans who were forced off their
land by the U.S. Govemment in 1838 and sent west to Oklahoma. A band of approximately
1,000 Indians, now known as the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBC�, hid in the
mountains of western North Carolina. In 1878, with the aid of an attorney, William H.
Thomas, the EBCI obtained title to the land that is now the present Qualla Reservation
(USDA 1983). The reservation encompasses roughly 56,572 acres (22,894 ha) within Swain,
Jackson, Graham, and Cherokee counties.
Federal acquisition of forestland in the southern Appalachians began after the Weeks Act of
19] 1. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the area was characterized by an economy
of self-sufficient small farms settled in the river valleys, isolated from each other by steep,
parallel ridges (USDA 1983). Large timber companies and coal companies had invested in
this relatively cheap land ihat had prolific natural resources. The USFS purchased land
primarily on an ad hoc basis, mostly from willing sellers (USDA 1983). By the 1920s, the
Forest Service had succeeded in purchasing tracts of land for what is now Nantahala National
Forest in Graham and Swain counties. Today, Nantahala National Forest makes up more
than half (roughly 59 percent) of Grahatn County.
The TVA was established in 1933 in an effort to spur economic development in the region,
increase the production of electricity for the war effort using the natural energy of the rivers
of the Tennessee Valley (hydroelectric power), and serve as flood control within the
Tennessee Valley. By ] 942, workers had started on the construction of Fontana Dam, the
largest of TVA's power-generating dams towering 480 feet (146.3 m). The flooding of the
Little Tennessee River by TVA caused the loss of railroad lines and NC 288, the area's main
roadway, both of which paralleled the river at low elevations.
In 1934, GSMNP was established. In 1943, the DOI, the TVA, Swain County and the state
of North Carolina signed a Memorandum of Agreement, which transferred a tract of land on
the northern shore of Fontana Lake to GSMNP. The tract of land covered an area of
approximately 4�,000 acres (] 7,806 ha). The 1943 Agreement stipulated that in exchange for
this tract of land the DOI would build a road along the northern shore of Fontana Lake from
the park boundary near Bryson City to Fontana Dam as replacement for existing NC 288 that
was to be flooded by the rising waters of the reservoir. According to an Asheville Citizen
50
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Times article dated August 3, 1986, some residents and descendents of residents who lived
within the 44,000-acre (17,806-ha) tract believe that if the road were rebuilt along the
northern shore of Fontana Lake, they would then have access to their family cemeteries and
previous homesteads. In a letter from the TVA to Mr. L. B. Cook dated July 31, 1943, the
TVA indicated that to reach his family cemetery (Proctor Cemetery) ". .. it will be necessary
to walk a considerable distance until a road is constructed in the vicinity of the cemetery,
which is proposed to be completed after the war has ended." However, in 1983 the U.S.
District Court ruled that the 1943 Agreement did not address access to cemeteries and was
not intended far that benefit any more so than for any other citizen of the county or state. The
decision was upheld by the Fourth District Court of Appeals, and by the United States
Supreme Court, which refused to hear the issue. The 1943 Agreeinent stipulates that the
TVA was to pay $400,000 to the State Treasurer of North Carolina to hold in trust for Swain
Counry. The funds were to be applied exclusively to the payment of the principal of the
counry's road bonds that were then outstanding and unpaid. The historical record of the
management and disbursement of the trust fund is currently being researched.
GSMNP was set aside as a national park, and the TVA regulated Fontana Lake and its
shoreline. The TVA possessed the power of eminent domain, resulting in the condemnation
of the properties of those families who were unwilling to leave. Payment for the land
taken as a result of the Fontana project averaged roughly $37 an acre (0.4 ha) (TVA 1950).
Compensation for land taken reflected the economy, the remote setting, and the type of land
that previously had been logged with many of the valuable river bottom parcels already
acquired. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics inflation
calculator, $37 roughly calculates to $396.09 in 2003, based on the average Consumer Price
Index far a given calendar year (http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.p12003). However,
current land value cannot be compared with the land value from the early 1940s without
conducting a real estate market analysis comparing information regarding land use, land
condition, proximity to adjacent real estate, and other economic factors. Estimates relating
only the price per acre plus inflation to current costs do not take into account fluctuations and
influences, such as timber and clear cutting, and are therefare deemed inaccurate. Although
many aspects of the project were positive for the region and the nation, the relocations
resulted in long-standing local grievances with the TVA and the NPS. In particular, many
local residents consider the unsettled 1943 Agreement, "a promise broken" by the federal
government.
As in the case of the neighboring national forest, the land that makes up GSMNP within the
study area was inhabited by numerous families, making up towns and villages along the
creeks and along the shores of the Little Tennessee River. According to Technical Report
No. 12, The Fontana Project, an account written by the TVA, the final total of removals for
the Fontana Project was 1,311 families, of wbom 7] 1 were transients and 600 (99 farm
families, 103 non farm families, 82 tenant farm families, and 316 tenant non-farm families)
51
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
were residents of the area before construction of the dam began. In addition to families and
homesteads, 74 institutions were destroyed or displaced, including churches, stores,
schools, grist mills, and mines. The nearby post office of Japan, serving a few families,
was also eliminated. More than 1,000 graves were moved from cemeteries that were to be
inundated or isolated by tbe project (TVA 1950).
Of the 600 original families who left the reservoir area, 269 relocated in the county of
original residence. Within the roughly 44,000-acre (l 7,806-ha) tract on the northern shore of
Fontana Lake that was ultimately transferred to the NPS, approximately 200 families were
relocated. The sites of three communities, Bushnell (including the village of Forney) with
approximately 205 families, and Almond and Judson with approximately 143 families, were
inundated by the lake. The Proctor community consisted of approximately 163 families who
were relocated, and 52 of the 300 families in Stecoab were relocated. These relocations were
a result of a loss of access and inundation (TVA 1950).
32.3 Community and Social Features
Bryson City, located in the eastern portion of the study area, is the county seat of Swain
County. GSMNP makes up nearly the entire northern half of the study area and is
undeveloped, while portions of Nantahala National Farest make up the southern portion of
the study area along with sparse develop�nent.
Graham and Swain counties are subdivided into townships or unorganized territories (UT),
according to the U.S. Census Bureau. Tl�e subdivisions are illustrated in Figure 5.
Charleston Township, Forney's Creek UT, and Nantahala Township make up Swain County.
Cheoah Township, Stecoah Township, and Yellow Creek Township make up Graham
Counry.
Small communities are prevalent in the study area. They are characterized by residential
development, recreational opportunities, and having such amenities as a grocery store, gas
station, church, boat dock, school, and/or gift shops, among other things. These communities
are located primarily along NC 28, US 19, andUS 74 in the study area.
3.2.3.1 Communities
Within the study area townships, there are small communities that include Fontana Village,
Tuskegee, Stecoah, Hidetown, Lauada, and Almond that border NC 28. Maple Springs is
south of NC 28. Carson Mill, Roundhill, De Hart Mill, and Jackson Line are south of
Fontana Lake but north of NC 28. Franklin Grove, Deep Creek, School House Hill, and
Lackey Hill are small communities near Bryson City. Camping and recreational
52
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
communities within the southern portion of the study area include Fontana, Tsali, and Cable
Cove.
3.2.3.2 Community Facilities
Within the study area, the majority of the communiry facilities are located along NC 28 or US
19/LTS 74, and in Bryson City. Community facilities and other study area development are
illustrated in Figure 8.
The westernmost portion of the study area is home to Fontana Village. The village offers
year-round vacation opportunities. Welch Cove Primitive Baptist Church is located just east
of Fontana Village on SR 1263 (Bee Cove Road). Cable Cove recreation area is located
north of NC 28 on SR 1287 (Cable Cove Road). The Cable Cove area is also home to the
Cable Cove Baptist Church.
Following NC 28 east from Cable Cove is the small community of Tuskegee. Tuskegee ha�
several commercial businesses along NC 28. Accessed from SR 1242 (Upper and Lower
Tuskegee Roads), is scattered residential development. Tuskegee Baptist Church, Yellow
Branch Cemetery, Eternal Believers Missionary Baptist Church, and Sawyers Creek Baptist
Church are located north of NC 28 in the Tuskegee area.
The community of Stecoah is east of Tuskegee along NC 28 and is home to the Stecoah
Valley Center (the former Stecoah School). The Stecoah Valley Center is a non-profit
organization formed by a group
of local citizens dedicated to
the preservation of mountain
culture, the local community,
and the former Stecoah School.
The Stecoah Valley Center
offers a library, family resource
center, senior citizens center,
after-school programs, summer
youth programs, and a
gymnasium, among other
things. The community of
Stecoah is residentially
developed with some
commercial businesses and has
its own volunteer fire
department.
�
�1
,. -� ,_=-_— �� . � �- :- �
� �,. -
� ��' �i:f�� - r � _ - -
_ __._ � .'I�} ,� _ , �r,� '�
g ' � I ��
.. �;� - - - � ' - I
, -, .� � :.� � `_�
� _. � _ a���« ���� � — �
�.-��_4 - -�' � ..at� � �
�
The Stecoah Valley Center
_ _ _ "'��
--.-:=-�.�;
53
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Hidetown is adjacent to Stecoah along NC 28. It has a small dirt racetrack likely used to race
go-carts or similar vehicles and signed as a"speedway." Hidetown also has some residentia]
development and a few commercial businesses. Along the upstream end of the open water
portions of the Panther Creek and Murphy Branch arms of Fontana Lake east of Hidetown
are severa] boat docks, an unnamed cemetery, and Panther Creek Baptist Churcb.
The Lemmons Branch Boat Access and Turkey Creek Campground are found near Tsali.
Recreational opportunities in the study area are described in Section 3.4 of this report.
The small crossroads community of Almond is located along NC 28, where the Nantahala
River is impounded as backwaters of Fontana Lake. Almond has its own Baptist Church and
cemetery along the lakeshore, as well as a park for recreational vehicles and a boat dock. The
Maple Springs communiry is located off SR 1113 (Needmore Road), south ofUS 19/US
74/NC 28. Maple Springs is home to the West Swain Volunteer Fire Department, scattered
residential development, and the Maple Springs Baptist Church and cemetery.
Nearby, at the intersection of NC 28 and US ] 9/US 74, is the small crossroads community of
Lauada. Several commercial businesses, Southwestern Community College and Smart Start,
and Sawmill Hill Freewill Baptist Church and cemetery are located in Lauada.
f °�
�
� w�
�
_- �;
t''''ft�j..�' _
Lauada Cemetery
�-
�
�
,,. �� '_ �, �. - _ � :
��'-�
�
c ' __ _ �l.y-�
. �
.� �
,�
North of Lauada, along the upstream end of the open water portion of the Alarka Creek arm
of Fontana Lake is the community of Carson Mill. Sawyer Cemetery, Mt. Zion Church, and
the Evangelistic Tabemacle Church are located in the vicinity of Carson Mill. North of
54
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Carson Mill, along SR 1311 (Grassy Branch Road) is the community of Roundhill. SR 13l ?
(Greasy Branch Road) is the location of Roundhill Missionary Baptist Church and cemetery,
a private residential development, Jenkins Cemetery, a boat dock, and a wildlife boat access.
De Hart Mill is a small residential community located on SR 1309 (Lower Alarka Road,
Stephenson Branch Road). The True Gospel Independent Baptist Church and De Hart
Cemetery are located in the De Hart Mill area. Along NC 28 in the vicinity of De Hart Mill
are Swain County West Elementary School, the New Life Assembly of God Church, Cold
Springs Baptist Church, and commercial businesses.
The small community of Jackson Line is adjacent to the De Hart Mill communiry along
US 19 and SR 1373 (De Hart Cemetery Road). Jackson Line is home to the Jackson Line
Baptist Church and residential development.
Northwest of the Bryson City limits is the community of Franklin Grove. Franklin Grove is a
medium-densiry residential area that houses the Franklin Grove Baptist Church. Also in the
vicinity of Franklin Grove are Watkins Cemetery, Victory Baptist Church, Rock Creek
Baptist Church, apartment complexes, Grace Christian Academy, and Swain County High
School.
Franklin Grove Baptist Church
Northeast of Bryson Ciry is the community of Lackey Hill. Residential development
characterizes Lackey Hill. The Swain County Recreational Park is located on 32 acres
55
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
(13 ha) in the Lackey Hill vicinity. 1'he park can be accessed from SR 1337 (West Deep
Creek Road).
Deep Creek is a residential community located north of Lackey Hill along the Deep Creek in
the vicinity of Bryson City. The Bryson City Church of God, Deep Creek Missionary Baptist
Church, and Randall Cemetery are located in the Deep Creek area. School House Hill is a
residential area located between US 19 and US 74, south of the Little Tennessee River in
Bryson City. Swain County Middle School and the Grace Christian Academy are located at
School House Hill along with residential development.
32.4 Economy and Employment
GSMNP, Nantahala National Forest, and the TVA lands encompass approximately 66
percent of Graham and Swain counties. The federally-owned lands are omitted from the
area's tax base. However, they do not require county services, are maintained with federal
funds, and provide a substantial job base for the area. Even though the available area far
development of each county is less than half the total land mass, GSMNP, TVA, and the
national forest make payments to the counties in lieu of taxes. The region has limited
highway access due to the mountainous terrain and the number of land reserves in the area.
In addition, population densities within Graham and Swain counties are some of the lowest in
the state.
3.2.4.1 Regional Economy
The western North Carolina region has exhibited slower population and employment growth
than the state (EDIS 1994). Compared with the state, business failure rate and business start-
up rate are slightly lower, and the unemployment rate and poverty rate are higher than those
of the region (EDIS 1994). In addition, educational attainment, which can be an indicator of
an area's prosperity, is lower in this region when compared with tbe state's educational
attainment far the percent of the population having completed a high school ar college
education. Within Graham and Swain counties, less than 60 percent of the workforce has
graduated fro�r� high school, while approximately ] 0 percent has obtained a college education
(EDIS 2001). According to EDIs, the fastest growing sectors of the region's economy in
1994 were construction and services. Average weelcly earnings in all industry sectors for
Graham and Swain counties were lower than the state earnings (EDIS 2001).
56
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
The TVA mission has been to generate prosperity in the Tennessee Valley. The agency has
been a substantial contributor to the economic development of the region since its inception.
TVA has several programs and services to facilitate economic development in the region.
TVA sponsors an Economic Development Loan Fund designed to stimulate investment and
job creation in the region. TVA's Special Opportunities Counties Fund gives financial help
to counties with low per capita incomes. The Tennessee Valley Industrial Development
Association provides industrial prospects with an integrated pacicage of economic incentives.
The TVA has a camprehensive electronic system that offers site selection characteristics
information to prospective industries as well as economic and research analysis, engineering
and architectural design, and environmental review services. Community development
programs sponsored by the TVA include the Quality Communities Program, which helps
communities improve their long-term economic competitiveness; and the ARC
Administration, which is a partnership that supports rcgio��al economic and social
development between the
federal govemment and the
', �:. � � �,��,�.: _ governors of 13 Appalachian
�`` t��` �. states. The TVA also offers
� , , �- ,��
. r s�. � �-� t . r '
��: �_� ,, � � � small and minority business
�' � .�� "�-� �' ��� support services (TVA 2003).
,, �
�
���� ���� °�- ���� �� The USFS has also had an
.� ,
y� ��� �,a
��ti� ,,,�-��:� ,' ' ,„ impact on the region's
,,
� " ' "�-�,�� � �� � `� , , economy over the past century.
iri � � � y � . �
� � � � � � � ��;� t .. �.�� �� ��.� The forests are important to the
. ._ . Yr. Ss�.
4;�,, �� local economy. According to
`"� "�Y the Land and Resource
.,;�--�: � ,
` Management Plan for
Fontana Dam
Nantahala and Pisgah national
forests, some individuals and communities depend on wood products from the forests and
spending by recreational users of the forests far at least part of their livelihood. Forest
products, such as firewood, galax, moss, and ginseng, provide important additions to the
livelihood of many residents. Payments in lieu of taxes for lands in public ownership are
returned to the state of North Carolina and its counties to help provide services for local
communities (USFS 1987).
The ARC was established by Congress in 1965 to support economic and social development
in the Appalachian region. The mission of the ARC is to "be an advocate far and partner
with the people of Appalachia to create opporiunities for self-sustaining economic
development and improved quality of life." The ARC is comprised of 13 Appalachian states
and a presidential appointee representing the federal government. The ARC helps to fund
projects that directly address ARC's five goal areas: education and workforce training,
57
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
physical infrastructure, civic capacity and leadership, business development, and health care.
Current programs and initiatives include an Economic and Human Development program, a
Distressed Counties program, an Entrepreneurship initiative, a Local Development District
program, a Telecommunications program, a Research and Technical Assistance program, a J-
1 Visa Waiver program, a Business Development Revolving Loan Fund program, and
various grants. The ARC analyzes the economic status of the 410 Appalachian counties in
their programs. The economic status of a county is determined by the ARC using
information from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis,
and the U.S. Census Bureau. According to the ARC, both Swain and Graham counties were
considered economically "distressed" in fiscal year 2003, where "distressed" refers to
counties having poverty and unemployment rates that are at least l 50 percent of the national
averages and per capita market incomes that are no mare than two-thirds of the national
average (www.arc.gov, October 2003).
3.2.4.2 Major 6nployers
The EDIS (2001) indicates government employment makes up 15.7 percent of the Swain
County workforce and 21.9 percent of the Graham County workforce. Over half (55.1
percent) of Swain County's workforce and 17.5 percent of Graham County's workforce are
employed in the service industry. Nearly 30 percent (26.7 percent) of Graham County's
workforce is employed in manufacturing. Approximately 21 percent of Swain County's
workforce is employed in retail trade. Workforce statistics by industry are listed in Table 19.
Table 19
Workforoe by Industry
Industry
Agriculture
Construction
Fnance/Insurance/f�al Estate
Government
Manufacturing
f�tail Trade
Wholesale Trade
Service
Transportation/Communications�FUblic Utilities
9wain County
0.3°/a
1.8%
1.2%
15.7%
3.4°/a
20.9%
0.7%
55.1 %
1.0%
Graham County
1.0%
15.6°/a
1.7%
21.9%
26.7%
12.3%
1.0%
17.5%
1.8%
Note: M ining is excluded because of its very small share of employment in North Carolina and for
confidentiality requirements set by the North Carolina Department of Commerce.
Souce: �I� 2nd Quarter 2001
58
The largest manufacturers in Graham and Swain counties are listed in Table 20. Figure 9
illustrates the locations of the major employers within the study area.
Table 20
Largest Manufacturers in Graham and 9wain Counties
Company City Rimary Produd
3anley Furniture Co., Inc. I�bbinsville Wood Household
Furniture
American Uniform Co. Fd�bbinsville Men'sand BoysWork
Clothing
f3�bbinsville Pallet Co. F�bbinsville Wood Pallets and 5cids
Bee Global Inc. I�bbinsnlle Manufaduring
Industries, NEC
� Consolidated Metco Brys�n City pastic Roducts
The Cherokees Cherokee Apparel and
Accessories, N�
� 9noky Cove Industries B�ys�n City M illwork
� Maness Manufacturing Brys�n City Wood Pallets and 9cids
Co.
� Diversfied 6q�ostion 9,�Iva Trade show e�ibits,
Services, Inc. showcases, wood
manufacturing
�American Roor Rnishing B�ys�n City R�finished hardwood
Co. flooring
� Monteith Wmber Co., B�ys�n City Hardwood Dimenson
Inc and Aooring Mills
CBC Rinting Inc. Cherokee Commeraal Rinting:
Lithographic
Morgan Mills F�sorts Inc. Brevard Fish and Seafoods, Fre�h
and Frozen
� 9noky Mountain Times B�ys�n City Newspapers: Ribli�ing
and Fi-inting
� Chicago Metal B�ys�n City Fabricated Rpe and Rpe
Fittings
� Ye Old Cabinet 9iop Bryson City Wood Kitchen
Cabinets
Souroe: �IS, 2"° quarter 2001.
� Denotes manufacturers located within the study area.
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
9taff � r Address
577 1986 68 9�owbird F3�ad
2
40 1972 Old Tallulah Fd�ad
25 1984 85 �wmill I�ad
2 1996 121 �chool House
Drive
170 1995 1821 Hwy 19 S
70 1954 680 Acquoni f3�ad
43
24
21
1991 819 Bryson Walk
1945 81 I�imseur Steet
1994 264 Wilkes
Crescent Drive
20 2000 77 Industrial Park
I�ad
16 1972 Hyatt Creek Fd�ad
14 1984 149 Children's
Home f3�ad
6 1983 Big Cove f3�ad
4
4
1884 6 f�ver 3reet
1952 601 Bryson Walk
1977 1 F3ver 3reet
59
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.3 Cultural Resouroes
The study area's rich history is detailed in the November 2003 Cultural Resources Existing
Conditions Report, North Shore Road EIS, Swain and Graham Counties, North Carolina,
by TRC Garrow Associates, Inc., and is briefly summarized below.
Many families in Swain and Graham counties have deep roots in the Little Tennessee
Valley and the southern Appalachians. The area witnessed Native American occupation far
at least the past 10,000 years, including several hundred years of Historic Cherokee
presence. Although most members of the Cherokee Nation were forcibly removed from the
region in 1838, others remained in the area and formed the nucleus of the present-day
Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. European-Americans began to enter the area primarily
in the 1820s, living first in dispersed settlements, some of which later developed into such
communities as Bryson City, Bushnell, Proctor, Almond, and Judson. The relatively self-
sufficient farming/herding/hunting lifestyles of the nineteenth century began to change with
the arrival of the railroad and the beginning of logging and mining operations in the ] 880s
and 1890s. Lifestyles were modified greatly with the commencement of large-scale
logging operations by about 1910. Lumber companies such as Ritter, Norwood, Whiting,
and Montvale logged extensive parts of the study area before leaving in the late 1920s. By
the time the lumber companies left, the Aluminum Co�npany of America (Alcoa) had
developed plans for Fontana Dam and Reservoir along the Little Tennessee and had begun
buying bottomland in the area. TVA took over the Fontana Project in 1941, and completed
construction of the dam and reservoir in 1944.
Relatively few cultural resource studies have been conducted in the study area, and the
coverage and resulting data are extremely uneven. Consequently, a combination of current
documentation, historic information, and physiographic-based predictive modeling has been
used to provide information on the quantity and likely distribution of cultural resources in the
study area. Several types of cultural resources are known or potentially present, including
archaeological sites, historic structures and other abov�ground resources, cemeteries, and
Traditional Cultural Properties (TCPs). The significance of these resources is evaluated in
terms of their eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), as outlined in
36 CFR 60.4. The NRHP Eligibiliry Criteria state:
The quality of significance in American history, architecture, archeology,
engineering, and culture is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures
and objects that possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials,
workmanship, feeling and association.
(a) That are associated with events that have made a significant contribution
to the broad patterns of our history; or
.�
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
(b) That are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or
(c) That embody the distinctive characteristics of a rype, period, or method
of construction; or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high
artistic values; or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity
whose components may lack individual distinction; or
(d). That have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in
prehistory or history.
The regulations also outline several criteria considerations that specify circumstances in
which a property that might not otherwise meet the Eligibility Criteria might still be NRHP-
eligible. For example, although cemeteries are not usually considered eligible resources, a
cemetery can qualify for the NHRP if it is an integral part of a histaric district or "derives its
primary significance from graves of persons of transcendent importance, from age, from
distinctive design features, or from association with histaric events".
3.3.1 Archaeological9tes
Systematic attempts to inventory and evaluate archaeological sites have been conducted over
an estimated 3 percent of the study area, with the most extensive surveys covering the 1,350-
acre (546-ha) Davis Cemetery tract (Webb et al. 1993) and 1,636 acres (662 ha) in the
Nantahala National Forest. This area of �#e-Nantahala National Forest involved three
surveys, a 770-acre (312-ha) tract (Noel and Snedeker 1998), a 606-acre (245-ha) tract
(including some areas outside the study area) (Ashcraft et al. 1994), and a 260-acre (105-ha)
tract (Noel and Snedeker 1999). These four surveys recorded ] 29 sites, or S l.6 percent of the
250 recorded sites in the study area. Another 23 sites, or 9.2 percent of the total, were
recorded by a survey of an estimated 250 acres (101 ha) of exposed lake shoreline
surrounding the Davis Cemetery Tract (Shumate et al. ] 996). That work represents the only
systematic survey of the Fontana Lake shoreline, and partly as a result archaeological sites
are dramatically underrepresented at Fontana Lake in comparison to other TVA reservoirs
(Ahlman et al. 2003:Table 3.1-0]). Finally, no larg�scale intensive surveys have been
conducted on GSMNP ar on privately owned lands within the study area.
The 250 recorded sites are primarily prehistoric in age, with about 195 (78.0 percent)
containing prehistoric components. The data are incomplete and difficult to summarize, but it
is clear that most of the prehistoric sites contain Archaic period (pre 1000 B.C.) or
unidentified lithic components; only about 45 (18.0 percent) of the total sites are known to
have Woodland period (ca. 1000 B.C. — A.D. 1000) or other ceramic components. Another
eight sites (3.2 percent) are recorded as having Historic Cherokee components, although
Cherokee components may also be present on a few sites that are recorded as Mississippian
(ca. A.D. 1000-1540). Historic European-American components are present on about 79
61
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
(31.6 percent) of the recorded sites, with most if not all of the recorded components dating to
the lat�nineteenth century or later. The ages and cultural affiliations of another nine sites
(3.6 percent) are unknown. An additional 16 sites are known in the project area but have not
been officially recorded; these include 11 prehistoric and five historic period sites.
A total of 149 (59.6 percent) of the recorded sites have been determined to be ineligible for
the NRHP, and the eligibility of another 96 sites (38.4 percent) has not been assessed. All
sites within GSMNP are considered unassessed and potentially eligible for the NRHP. Four
of the five sites determined NRHP-eligible include one (31 SW265) dating to the Middle and
Late Archaic periods (Shumate and Evans — Shumate 1996; Shumate and Kimball 2001 a),
one (31 SW263) that contains Archaic and Pisgah (Mississippian) materials (Shumate and
Evans —
Shumate 1996; Shumate andKimball 1996), one (31SW273/273**i) containing an early
Historic Cherolcee component (as well as earlier prehistoric and later Euro-American
components) (Shumate and Evans — Shumate 1996:229-249; Shumate and Kimball 1997,
1998, 2001b), and one (31 SW365**) that appears to represent a mid-nineteenth-century
Cherokee homestead (Riggs and Shumate 2003). Data recovery excavations have been
conducted at all four of these sites, although only one (31SW365**) has been completely
reported. The fifth NRHP-eligible site (31 SW366**) is a nineteenth-to-twentieth-century
Histaric Cherokee cemetery.
Most of the prehistoric sites appear to be habitation sites. There are no recorded lithic
quarries in the study area, although soapstone quarries may be present in the Welch
Cove/Fontana Village area (Snedeker, pers. comm. 2003). One rock art site is known to be
present (but officially unrecorded) in the study area; that site is located beneath the full pool
of Fontana Lake in the Bushnell area and appears likely to date to the historic period (Oliver
1996; Ashcraft, pers. comm. 2003). Similarly, at least one fish trap is histarically known to
have been present near Fishtrap Branch along the Little Tennessee River near the former site
of Judson (Justice 2002), but has not been recorded as an archaeological site.
� Cultural and historic resources are given a reference code. For archaeological siies, the number 31
designates the State of North Carolina. The letters SW indicate Swain County. The digits that follow
notes tbe site number established by the Office of State Archaeology. The symbol "**" following a
site number indicates that it is a historic resource rather than a prehistoric site.
62
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Most of the historic period sites appear to date to the late nineteenth century or later, and most
appear to represent domestic sites. With the exception of 31 SW365**, the nineteenth century
Historic Cherokee and early to mid-nineteenth century European-American occupations in
the area are essentially unrepresented among the recorded sites. The later European-
American domestic occupations are also dramatically unrecorded, even though the locations
of many such sites are easily discernable. In addition, none of the known logging or mining
related sites on the northern shore of Fontana Lake have been officially recorded. A single
transportation-related site (part of the former NC 10) has been recorded and assessed on the
Davis Cemetery Tract (Webb et al. 1993; Shumate 1994).
These data ha�e several implications for future archaeological research in the study area. It is
clear that the great majoriry of the study area has not been adequately surveyed for
archaeological resources. The extant data, as well as information from other regional studies
and historical sources, do indicate that prehistoric, Historic Cherokee, and historic European-
American sites are abundant in the area and provide some information as to their likely
locations.
A variety of recent studies have provided predictions concerning the likely location of
prehistoric and Historic Cherokee sites in the region. Davis (1990) summarized site
distributional data in the lower Little Tennessee Valley and documented extensive Archaic
use of both upland and lowland zones as well as increasing intensity of alluvial terrace use
during the Late Archaic and Woodland periods. Recent work in GSMNP has also
documented a previously unsuspected high densiry of upland prehistoric sites (Kreusch, pers.
comm. 2003; Yu 2001), and work on the Ravensford Tract has shown that intact Early to
Middle Archaic sites may be located beneath alluvial and colluvial deposits on fans and along
valley margins, while larger Late Archaic and Woodland sites are present on the alluvial
terraces (Webb 2002). Other regional projects (e.g., Ashcraft et al. 1994) have documented
relatively low frequencies of occupation of rugged uplands immediately adjacent to major
drainage (as are present south of the Little Tennessee River), likely because such locations
were not advantageous for exploiting either the alluvial landforms below or the upland coves,
saddles, gaps, and benches further from the river. Studies have also provided information on
the typical locations of Historic Cherokee farmsteads, which are usually situated on colluvial
fans or benches, generally adjacent to water sources and frequently on the north ar
northwestern sides of valleys (Riggs 1996). Finally, considerable map and anecdotal data on
the factors affecting the later historic European-American land use are available for the study
area and elsewhere, although those data have not been synthesized.
Joy (2002, 2003) has developed (and to some degree tested) a model of site location for
Santeetlah Reservoir, southwest of the study area. The final Santeetlah predictive model used
landform, slope, distance to water, and distance to a stream confluence to identify high,
moderate, or low probabiliry zones for site occurrence (Joy 2003). Reduced to its essentials,
63
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
that model identified moderate to high probability zones for site occurrence as those located
within 984 feet (300 m) of water and possessing less than 15 percent slope. The final model
successfully placed 100 percent of 250 identified prehistoric, Historic Cherokee, or historic
European-American coinponents in the Santeetlah area within the moderate to high
probability zones. The model is lilcely not a good predictor of some specialized site types
(such as quarries or rock shelters), for which other factors are likely more important. A
similar 15 to 20 percent cut-off for likely site occurrence is also used as a rul�of-thumb for
surveys on both USFS and GSMNP lands in western North Carolina (Kreusch, pers. comm.
2003; Rodney Snedeker, pers. comm. 2003), and has also been employed on surveys of
private lands in the region (e.g., Idol 2001).
Worlcing from this premise, it is reasonable to assume that archaeological sites in the study
area will be found almost exclusively in locations with less than 15 percent slope, and that the
slope variable (supplemented by existing data on known and potential site locations) can be
used to identify those areas within the study area that have a moderate to high potential for
containing archaeological sites. In order to implement this assumption, areas of 15 percent or
lesser slope have been identified based on 33-foot (10-m) (horizontal) interval Digital
Elevation Models (DEMs) of the area obtained from the USGS. This information has been
supplemented with data on all known site locations, as well as data on known former historic
period structure locations derived from a variety of nineteenth and early-to-mid-twentieth
century maps. Derived frotn pr�1942 maps, the locations of 1,716 potential historic period
sites and the locations of all known archaeological sites are illustrated in Cultural Resources
Existing Conditions Report, North Shore Road EIS, Swain and Graham Counties, North
Carolina, by TRC Garrow Associates, Inc. (2003).
3.3.2 HistoricStructuresand OtherAboveground Resources
There are four NRHP-listed structures in ihe study area, including one in GSMNP and three
in private or public ownership in Bryson City. The NRHP-listed structure in GSMNP is the
Hall (Hall/Kress) cabin, a 17 x 24-foot (5.2 x 7.3-m) poplar log structure that was built by
Crate Hall in Bone Valley in 1892. It was incorparated into a hunting lodge complex built by
the Kress family around 1940, but survived when the larger structure bumed (Gordon 1973;
Holland 2001; Oliver 1989; Parris 1978).
NRHP-listed structures elsewhere in the study area include the Frye-Randolph house,
Fryemont Inn, and the old Swain County Courthouse, all in Bryson City. The Frye-Randolph
house and Fryemont Inn are adjacent buildings built about 1895 and 1923, respectively and
were listed on the NRHP in 1982 (Southern and Sumner 1982; Bisher et al. 1999). The
nearby Swain County Courthouse is a two-story Neo-Classical structure built in 1908 and
was listed in the NRHP in 1979 (North Carolina State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO)
2001).
64
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
At least 40 other structures, structural complexes, ar similar aboveground resources in the
project area have been recorded to some degree by previous researchers or during the
preliminary work for this study. Since these ha�e not been formally evaluated, they are
considered potentially NRHP-eligible (generally under Criteria A and/ar C) for the purpose
of this study. These include a number of structures identified by Williams (1998), Bisher et
al. (1999), and others, a few of which have been documented in detail and officially placed on
the SHPO study list (e.g., the Calhoun Hotel in Bryson Ciry and the Bryson City Down Town
Historic District). Others have not been recorded in detail, but have been noted as worthy of
further study. The distribution of known NRHP-eligible and potentially eligible structures
and other aboveground resources in the project area is highly concentrated in the Bryson City
area and along historic roadways. A few of these resources are discussed individually below.
Within GSMNP, the Calboun House is a frame house tbat was built in 1928 at the close of
the Ritter Lumber Company era and was occupied by Granville and Lily Calhoun until 1944;
it was later used as the Hazel Creek Ranger Station (Oliver ] 998). Althougb, "not especially
handsome and not an example of Ritter construction, [it] was large enough," and
appropriately situated to be preserved for Park use after 1944 (Oliver 1989). A 1997 NPS
condition assessment recommended removal of a 1966 NPS addition to restore the structure's
"character and originality," as well as stabilization or reconstruction of a river rock wall and
other protective measures (Miri ] 997). Those changes were completed between 1997 and
2000 (Kreusch, pers, comm. 2003).
The Calhoun Hotel in Bryson Ciry was built about 1925 and purchased by Granville Calhoun
in 1946. It is a brick foursquare structure that played a part in the early development of
tourism in the area and served as a meeting place for community leaders and others during
the planning and construction of Fontana Dam and the development of the Cherokee
Historical Association. The Bryson City Historic District covers about 25 acres (10 ha) of the
town's commercial district, including such notable structures as the former Bennett Drug
Store and the Old Pillar Building.
The NRHP-eligibility of Fontana Dam and its affiliated structures has not been assessed,
although these structures are considered potentially NRHP-eligible under Criterion A and
possibly Criterion C. The dam is a straight-crested, concrete gravity structure, and according
to Jackson (1988), "occupies a particularly beautiful spot in the Smoky Mountains. In fact,
historian Carl Condit considers the dam `a perfect symbol of man and nature in harmony. "'
Similarly, Bisher et al. (] 999) describe the dam's "simple grandeur," as well as the
architectural presence of the associated powerhouse and visitor's center.
Fontana Village has functioned as a resort community since shortly after completion of the
dam, but, "retains a number of tbe community facilities and houses built by the TVA in the
early 1940s. These structures have attracted scholarly attention far their importance in the
65
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
history of manufactured housing," (Bisher et al. 1999) and include a variety of "permanent,"
"temporary," "demountable," and trailer houses. The potential significance of Fontana
Village as a historic district remains to be assessed, but minimally it is likely that some of the
remaining structures (if not the complex itsel� are eligible under Criteria A or C. The village
also includes the ca. 1875 Gunter house, a two-room log house of half-dovetailed
construction (Bisher et al. 1999); it might be eligible under Criterion A and/or C and could
also have associated archaeological resources, making it eligible under Criterion D.
A few other standing structures or objects within GSMNP must also be considered potentially
NRHP-eligible, including extant shafts, hoists, boilers, support structures, and other features
associated with ihe Fontana and Hazel Creek mines and Westfeldt and other prospects.
These features, along with associated ruins and archaeological deposits, need to be assessed
as a potentially NRHP-eligible historic mining district (under Criteria A and D), as outlined
by Noble and Spude (1997). The NRHP-eligibility of the standing dry kilns, pump houses,
stream gauge, and other structural features at the Ritter mill site in Proctar also need to be
assessed (Criteria A and D), preferably along with associated ruins and archaeological
deposits as part of a potential Proctor historic district.
There is only one recorded NRHP-eligible or potentially NRHP-eligible bridge in the study
area. That structure is an ] 899 through-truss railroad bridge over the Tuckasegee River at
Bryson City and was relocated to its present location from a Nantahala River crossing in 1944
prior to construction of Fontana Lake (Bisher et al. 1999). The last potentially significant
bridge in the GSMNP part of the study area was removed in 1992 (Anonymous 1992; Hunter
1986; Scott 1991), and the extant bridges over Hazel Creek and other park streams are
relatively recent. It is possible that some bridges elsewhere in the study area (such as the
1944 Southern Railway Bridge over the Little Tennessee River near Almond [TVA 1950])
might eventually be considered signiftcant due to their histaric associations (Criterion A) or
structural characteristics (Criterion C).
Road segments merit some attention as aboveground resources or as archaeological sites.
The constructed portion of Lake View Road was recorded by Williams (1998) and has been
documented to Historic American Buildings Survey/Historic American Engineering Record
standards by the NPS (l 996). While most segments of the road presently do not meet the
NRHP criteria consideration concerning age (having been constructed primarily in the early
1960s), the completed segments need to be evaluated for their potential significance under
Criterion A for their association with the history of GSMNP and the area's North Shore Road
controversy. Surviving segments of NC 288 along the northem shore of Fontana Lake need
to be considered potentially eligible under Criterion A for the same reason. Other surviving
nineteenth to mid-twentieth century road segments or other transportation features (such as
railroad grades, trestle remnants, or tunnels) in GSMNP, beneath Fontana Lake, and
elsewhere in the study area should also be evaluated. Finally, the NRHP-eligibility of the
..
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
short section of road built during World War II by the United States Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE) in the Pinnacle Creek area (in the Eagle Creek drainage) (NPS 1996;
Oliver 1989; Taylor 2001) also needs to be evaluated.
The potential significance of twentieth century hiking trails (and any older trails) also needs
to be considered. Although there are no known CCC-built hiking trails or shelters in GSMNP
within the study area (Chapman, pers. comm. 2003); the potential historic significance of the
Appalachian National Scenic Trail in the area should be assessed in addition to considerations
related to its designation as a National Scenic Trail. Two segments of the Appalachian
National Scenic Trail are within the study area, an approximately 6-mile (9.7-km) section
extending about 3.25 miles (5.2 km) north and 2.75 miles (4.4 km) south of Fontana Da�n,
and a 2,000-foot (610-m) section west of NC 143 through Sweetwater Gap. Most of this
mileage dates to 1946 or later; only the Sweetwater Gap portion of the trail within the study
area appears to follow or closely parallel a pr�1946 route (ATC 1973). Even these later trail
segments potentially could be NRHP-eligible. There are no potentially significant
Appalachian National Scenic Trail shelters likely within the study area. The nearest
potentially historic trail structure in the study area is the log lean-to shelter at Cable Gap
(about l,312 feet [400 m] southwest of the study area), which was built in ] 939 by the CCC
under the direction of Nantahala National Forest (ATC ] 973; Sommerville, pers. comm.
2003).
Finally, there is the potential for historic tree carvings in the study area, as have been
documented elsewhere in the region (Kreusch, pers. comm. 2003). If present, such carvings
could be NRHP-eligible under Criterion A. As previously discussed in Section 3.3.1 of this
report as a potential archaeological site, at least one (presumably historic period) rock carving
is known in the area.
3.3.3 Cemeteries
Cemeteries and other burial sites represent a unique class of cultural resources. Although
cemeteries are generally not considered eligible for the NRHP, in some cases they have been
determined to be NRHP-eligible or listed on the NRHP either as part of larger NRHP districts
or because they meet one or more of the NRHP criteria considerations mentioned above
(Potter and Boland 1992). In addition, the special importance of cemeteries as spiritual
places is widely recognized. They are protected by such federal and state statutes as the
Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) (graves over 100 years old), Native
American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) (Native American graves on
federal land), and North Carolina General Statutes 65 (Cemeteries) and 70.3 (The Unmarked
Human Burial and Skeletal Rerv�ains Protection Act). A similar statute applies to cemeteries
on EBCI tribal lands, but no such lands are contained within the project study area.
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There are at least 87 known or reported cemeteries in the project area, including one possible
and 22 known locations within GSMNP and 64 outside the park. That total includes the
cemeteries affected by the Fontana Dam Project, but does not include 10 former cemeteries
from which all graves were reportedly moved by the TVA prior to construction of Fontana
Dam. A few of the 87 cemeteries are known only from historic or map references.
Additional marked or unmarked gravesites may be present in the study area.
In 1943, local residents had the opporiunity to have family graves relocated from cemeteries
that would be flooded, disturbed by dam construction, or made inaccessible by the
construction of Fontana Dam and the resulting flooding of NC 288 (TVA 1950). While some
people agreed to cemetery relocation, others chose not to have graves moved from cemeteries
located outside the reservoir pool. Some family members explain that their choices not to
relocate gra�es were based on the promise of a new road to replace NC 288, which would
facilitate access to graves remaining north of Fontana Lake. After construction of the Lake
View Road halted in tbe early 1970s, NPS began ferrying relatives across Fontana Lake to
visit the family cemeteries. Since the late 1970s, NPS personnel have provided ferry trips
across the lake to access the cemeteries (15 to 20 trips annually). These trips have helped to
maintain local ties to the area and are frequently referred to as "Homecomings" and
"Decoration Days." Since 1943, there has been considerable debate regarding whether
cemetery access was part of the 19�3 Agreement, resulting in a lawsuit filed by the North
Shore Cemetery Association in 1980 to resume road construction and provide access to
family cemeteries. In November 1983, the U.S. District Court dismissed the North Shore
Cemetery Association's lawsuit as not relevant to the 1943 Agreement's obligations. The
decision was upheld by the fourth District Court of Appeals and by the United States
Supreme Court, which refused to hear the issue.
Some of the cemeteries in the study area, especially those off the northern shore of Fontana
Lake, could be NRHP-eligible due to their importance to local communities and/or their
association with the North Shore Road controversy (Criterion A), their association with
important individuals (Criterion B), the presence of distinctive grave markers or other
features (Criterion C), or even for their data potential (Criterion D) (Potter and Boland 1992).
One Cherokee cemetery (the Cat or Catt cemetery) east of Almond has been determined to be
NRHP-eligible as an archaeological site (3 ] SW366**). The 10 former cemetery locations
from which TVA moved graves may also merit NRHP consideration, primarily due to the
potential presence of remaining graves or grave markers, as at the former Judson Cemetery.
The approximately 9,000 known graves do not represent all the individuals who have been
buried in the study area since the early 1800s. In particular, nineteenth century graves are
likely underrepresented among tbe recorded interments, and it is likely that many early
historic period Historic Cherokee, European-American, or Native American interments exist
as unmarked graves in either the recorded or the unrecorded cemeteries. Other graves, such
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as a potential twentieth century cemetery on Eagle Creek, could contain individuals who died
in outlying locations during the logging era (Oliver 1992). Also, many prehistoric Native
American ar early Historic Cherokee graves are likely present, but unrecorded, in the study
area. All graves merit the same protection afforded to marked cemeteries by state and federal
laws. As might be expected, there is a general correlation between the locations of the 87
known or suspected cemeteries and those areas with dense histaric period settlement.
3.3.4 Traditional Q.iltural Properties
TCPs are defined as places that are associated with the cultural practices ar beliefs of a living
community. Such properties can be determined eligible for the NRHP under Criterion A if
they are rooted in that community's history and are important in maintaining the continuing
cultural identity of the community (Parker and King 1992). Although TCPs are often thought
of as Native American "sacred sites," they can also be traditional resource procurement areas
(locations at which groups traditionally gathered foodstuffs, medicinal plants, or other
materials) or sacred or secular locations important to other ethnic groups.
Since TCPs by their definition are of special importance to a community, information on their
locations and significance may not be published ar otherwise widely disseminated. These
details are frequently restricted to elders, religious leaders, or other specific segments of the
communiry. Consequently, identifying TCPs is often a difficult and complicated process and
may require extensive and intensive consultation with the communities involved. Initial
attempts to identify TCPs in the project area have been limited to the examination of
published sources. Coordination with the EBCI Tribal Historic Preservation Officer is
ongoing, however, and any further identification of Cherokee TCPs must await the results of
this coordination.
In addition, there is potential for TCPs associated with the later historic period occupation of
the area. In particular, some cemeteries north of Fontana Lake were clearly given special
importance prior to the depopulation of the area in the 1940s (Oliver 1989). The Decoration
Days described by Duane Oliver for the pr� 19�44 period were revived in the late 1970s by
former residents and their descendants. These cemetery visitations have clearly played a
major role in maintaining group identity among the people who were dispossessed of their
former lands (Anonymous 1978; Cable 1998; Cantre112000; Chandler 1986; Holland 2001;
Taylor 2001). Other areas may also merit consideration as TCPs, including the "hot pit" at
Guardhouse Mountain on the former Welch property east of Chambers Creek (Parris 1962,
1986) or the "Elephant Rock," a large rock situated on the banks of Hazel Creek below
Proctor.
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3.3.5 Other Cultural Resources
Another potential type of Cultural Resource is the Cultural Landscape, which is defined as:
a geographic area, including both natural and cultural resources, associated with a
historic event, activiry, ar person. The National Park Service recognizes four cultural
landscape categories: historic designed landscapes, historic vernacular landscapes,
historic sites, and ethnographic landscapes (NPS l 998a:87).
Although historic designed landscapes and historic sites (which in this sense are associated
with important events, activities, and persons [NPS 1998a]) are unlikely to be present in the
study area, the potential for historic vernacular landscapes and ethnographic landscapes must
be considered. As defined by the NPS (1998a:87), "histaric vemacular landscapes illustrate
peoples' values and attitudes towards the land and reflect patterns of settlement, use, and
development over time." One particular type of historic vernacular landscape is the Rural
Historic Landscape, which consists o£
a geographical area that historically has been used by people, or shaped or modified by
human activity, occupancy, or intervention, and that possesses a significant
concentration, linkage, or continuity of areas of land use, vegetation, buildings and
structures, roads and waterways, and natural features [McClelland et al. l 999].
Such landscapes could potentially be NRHP-eligible under Criteria A, B, C, or D, but are
probably most frequently considered eligible under Criterion A.
No previous attempts have been made to identify Rural Historic Landscapes within the study
area. It is unlilcely that any areas within GSMNP or Nantahala National Forest would meet
the definition and registration requirements, due to the extensive reforestation (and in some
cases, other landscape changes) that has occurred since they were occupied. Landscape
features within these areas are probably best treated as archaeological sites, ar as part of
potential NRHP districts constructed primarily around archaeological resources. There is
some potential far rural historic landscapes in other parts of the study area that may have
maintained their traditional character.
Ethnographic ]andscapes are, "associated with contemporary groups and rypically are used or
valued in traditional ways" (NPS 1998a). Given the history of the project study area, there is
some potentia] for ethnographic landscapes associated with both Cherokee and European-
American populations in the area. Similarly, it may be necessary to consider the potential
presence and significance of other types of ethnographic resources in or adjacent to the study
area (NPS 1998a).
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Finally, the potential for other types of non-traditional NRHP districts in the area should also
be considered. Such districts could include a variety of structures, archaeological sites, or
other resources associated with a particular individual, such as Horace Kephart, or with a
historical event or process, such as the logging on Hazel Creek, the construction of Fontana
Dam, or even the North Shore Road controversy itself.
3.3.6 �mmary
Almost 2,000 known and potential cultural resources, including 109 NRHP-eligible or
potentially eligible archaeological sites, 16 other reported site locations, 44 structures and
other aboveground resources, 97 cemeteries or former cemeteries, and ],716 former historic
structure locations derived from historic maps were identified within the study area. Even
this figure certainly underestimates the number of resources in the study area. It is necessary
to supplement these data with predictive statements concerning the locations of areas of
moderate to high probability for site occurrence. Field verification of the cultural resources
locations will occur in the EIS.
3.4 Parklands and Recxeational Faalities
Recreational opportunities abound in the study area (see Figure 10). The NPS, the USFS, and
the TVA all encourage the use of federally designated lands for recreation. The majority of
the study area is within GSMNP. While Nantahala National Forest encompasses a portion of
the study area south of Fontana Lake, the TVA owns Fontana Lake and its shoreline.
The NPS Organic Act of August 25, 1916, states that the fundamental purpose of national
parks is, "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wildlife therein
and to provide for the enjoyment of the same such manner and by such means as will leave
them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." Recreational development began
in the study area with the commitment of land for GSMNP, Nantahala National Forest, and
the TVA. By l 920 Nantahala National Forest was arganized from tracts of land that had
been purchased after the Weeks Act of 191 ]. For GSMNP, the majority of land that makes
up the park had been purchased and set aside as a preserve by 1934. The TVA transferred
Fontana Village to GSI in the 1950s; however, the mountains of North Carolina were a
popular vacation spot well before the creation of the Fontana Village Resort.
The Conservation Movement (1850-1920) in American history marked the beginning of the
nation's era to preserve and protect American heritage. During that time, a heightened
conservation consciousness first emerged as a political and cultural movement, based largely
on a growing appreciation for the importance of nature as an economic, aesthetic, and
spiritual resource, together with a newly urgent conviction that nature's resources were
increasingly imperiled. This movement led to unprecedented public and private initiatives,
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such as the establishment of the national parks system, intended to ensure the wise and
scientific use of natural resources and the preservation of wildlife and of landscapes of great
natural beauty (http://lcweb2loc.gov/ammem/amrvhtml/conshome.htm12003).
3.4.1 Great 9�noky MountainsNational Park
3.4.1.1 Park Vistor U�, Operations, and Management
GSMNP, which encompasses more than 521,000 acres (210,842 ha), is the most visited park
in the nation (Cox 1998). Total recreation visits for 2002 were 9,215,806 (www.gsmnp.com
2003). The highest recorded visitation occurred in 1999 with 10.3 million visitors. October
is the single busiest month according to park officials. However, the summer months of June
to August see the most visitors in a thre�month period.
The Cooperative Park Studies Unit at the University of Idaho completed a Visitor Studies
Report for GSMNP in 1997. The studies were conducted in the summer and fall of 1996. In
the summer, 1,191 questionnaires were distributed with 919 returned, a response rate of 77
percent. The fall response rate was higher at 82 percent (1,158 questionnaires distributed and
945 returned).
Family groups comprised the majority of summer and fall visitors. The age of visitors varied
in the summer and fall. Visitors aged 3] to 50 years old accounted for 39 percent of the
visitors in the summer. Another 26 percent of summer visitors were 15 years old or younger.
Fall visitors were older, with 45 percent aged 46 to 65 years old (Littlejohn 1997).
International visitors accounted for 2 percent of the total visitors in both the summer and fall.
Of the international visitors, the largest group was from England, totaling 23 percent in the
summer and 26 percent in the fall. Tennessee residents accounted far 17 percent of the
United States' visitors in both seasons. Florida followed closely with 11 percent in the
summer and 14 percent in the fall. GSNINP was the primary destination for over half of the
visitors in the summer and fall. Furthermore, 65 percent of summer visitors and 79 percent of
fall visitors had previously visited at GSMNP (Littlejohn 1997).
The most popular activities for summer and fall visitors were viewing scenery, wildlife, and
wildflowers; photography; and visiting historic sites. Most visitors entered and exited the
park from Gatlinburg during both seasons. Approximately two-thirds of summer and fall
visitors stayed less than one day in the park. The most visited place in the park was Cades
Cove Loop Road (54 percent in the summer and 61 percent in the fall). The overall quality of
services in the park were rated as "good" or "very good" by 90 percent of visitors in the
summer and 91 percent of visitors in the fall (Littlejohn 1997).
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E�cisting Conditions
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The park administers a permit system for use of its backcountry campsites to protect the park
and its resources. Through use of the system, the park strives to offer the highest quality
visitar experience without degrading the natural environment. According to Gearge Minnigh
with GSMNP, approximately 13,000 permits are issued yearly. On average, the permits are
for 2.5 persons.
The park's GMP, updated in 1982, establishes long-range strategies for resource management
and visitar use. In order to meet these objectives, the plan established management zones,
which indicate appropriate uses, activities, and management actions for the park. The
management zones are discussed in Section 3.1.1 of this report.
Administrative roads throughout GSMNP are used for maintenance and emergency response.
In addition, the park provides transportation and/or maintains access to the cemeteries located
within its boundary. Within the study area, vehicular access to most of the cemeteries was
eliminated with the flooding of NC 288. For these cemeteries, annual access is provided by
the NPS and includes boat access across Fontana Lake and vehicular access to or to the
viciniry of the cemeteries. For those cemeteries accessible by land, the park maintains access
corridors to them.
GSMNP was designated as a World Heritage Site in 1983, as detailed in Section 3.1.1 of this
report (http://www.nps.gov/grsm).
Wilderness, as defined in the 1964 Wilderness Act, is "an area of undeveloped federal land
retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent improvements or human
habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which
(1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint
of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opporiunities for solitude or a
primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least 5,000 acres (2,023.4 ha) of land
ar is of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired
condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific,
educational, scenic, or historical value."
The Wilderness Act directed tbe Secretary of the Interior to study all roadless National Park
areas of 5,000 or more contiguous acres (2,023.4 ha) for wilderness designation. In
accordance with these requirements, the NPS conducted a wilderness suitability study of
GSMNP and in 1966 released to the public a recommendaYion that approximately 247,000
acres (99,957.5 ha) be designated as wilderness in an effort to protect and perpetuate the
park's scenic and biotic resources. Due to public request for inclusion of additional lands in
the designation, the NPS subsequently released a revised recommendation. President Fard
transmitted the 1974 Wilderness Recommendation to Congress, accompanied by a Draft EIS
(DEIS). The recommendation proposed that 390,500 acres (158,030 ha) within the park be
73
E�cisting Conditions
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designated as wilderness. However, Congress did not pass the 1974 recommendation, and in
1978 the DOI recommended that no action be taken until some resolution was reached
concerning the 1943 Agreement pertaining to North Shore Road.
In l 979, another attempt was made to address the wilderness issue. This revision totaled
425,384 acres (172,147.1 ha) to include, among other things, the roughly 44,000-acre
(17,806-ha) former North Shore/TVA tract. However, the revision was never transmitted to
Congress. In 1999, the original GSMNP recommendation of 390,500 acres (158,030 ha)
from 1974 was approved for retransmittal to Congress because it was the only
recommendation that had NEPA compliance documents. However, the Council on
Environmental Quality (CEQ) was not willing to r�transmit the recommendations to
Congress because the 1974 compliance documents were outdated. In light of the 1999
decision by CEQ, the designation of any lands within GSMNP as wildemess will require the
completion of a new wilderness suitability assessment and proposaL The NPS has
recognized that in light of the difficulties encountered in the previous wilderness proposals,
any future consideration of wilderness designation should not take place until the North Shore
Road issue is resolved. However, the park currently manages all of the proposed area in
accordance with NPS wilderness policies to preserve the characteristics that make it eligible
as a designated wildemess.
The portion of the project study area within GSMNP, along with a larger portion of GSMNP
contiguous with the study area, is one of the largest land tracts in the eastem United States
that is not impacted by or easily accessible from modern roads.
3.4.1.2 Recreational Amenitiesand Facilities
GSMNP accounts for roughly 52,600 acres (21 ha) of the study area. The park's recreational
facilities make it popular for both local and destination travel. The park operates 10
developed campgrounds (frontcountry), which total approximately 980 campsites. In
addition to the developed campgrounds, 89 backcountry campsites and 15 backcountry
shelters are available to overnight visitors (GSMNP 2001). Vehicle access is available to the
developed campgrounds, while campers are required to hike to the backcountry campsites.
Approximately 850 miles (1,368 km) of biking trails connect the backcountry campsites
throughout the park (www.nps.gov 2003). Of the 850 miles (1,368 km) of hiking trails,
approximately 550 �niles (885 km) allow horses. In addition, there are five horse camps in
GSMNP. Although bicycles are not allowed on any trails within the study area, bicycles can
travel on some trails and most roads within the remainder of the park.
74
E�cisting Conditions
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3.4.1.2.1 Study Area
The portion of GSMNP within the study area is considered backcountry. Backcountry
campsites and trails are the only facilities within the study area. Of the park's 89 backcountry
campsites, 22 are witbin the study area. Fifteen trails traverse the study area, providing
access to these campsites. Within the study area, horses are allowed on all but one of the
trails. Park facilities within the study area are shown on Figure 10.
3.4.1.2.2 Other Facilities Outside the Study Area
Three visitor centers are located within GSMNP: Cades Cove Visitor Center, Oconaluftee
Visitor Center, and Sugarlands Visitor Center. Ranger-led programs are conducted
seasonally from each of these visitar centers. Other places to visit within the park include
Cades Cove Loop Road, Foothills Parkway, Roaring Fork Motor Trail, Cable Mill Complex
(water-powered grist mill), Mingus Mill (turbine-powered grist mill), Newfound Gap,
Clingmans Dome, Chimney Tops, Laurel Falls, Mountain Farm Museum, and Cataloochee.
In addition, 27.5 miles (441an) of the Mountains to Sea Trail (MST) traverses GSMNP
northeast of the study area (http://www.ils.unc.edu/parkproject/trails/m2c/ about.html 2003).
When complete, the MST will cover approximately 900 miles (1,448 km) from Clingmans
Dome in GSMNP to Jockey's Ridge State Park on the Outer Banks of North Carolina.
Currently, approximately 400 miles (644 km) are complete.
3.4.2 Appalachian National �cenicTrail
The Appalachian National Scenic Trail (AT) crosses the
western portion of the study area. The AT covers 2,167 miles
(3,487 km) from Katahdin Mountain in Maine to Springer
Mountain in north Georgia, traversing 14 states
(http://www.nps.gov/appa 2003). Completed in 1937, the trail
was designated as the first National Scenic Trail by the
National Trails System Act of 1968. National Scenic Trails are
defined by the act as "extended trails so located as to provide
for maximum outdoor recreation potential and for the
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conservation and enjoyment of the nationally significant scenic, ���•��'�-�, '--� r�� 's �;�'��� 1
historic natural or cultural ualities of the areas throu h which �r��"''` �� '� ��
> > 9 g Ad!�;n�^ � '�,,.,+. ",. _ ,. ,, .��,�+ a
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such trails may pass" (GMP 1982). The act lists facilities and
uses that are allowed along the trail. Trail management within Appaiacnian Traii Hik�ng nnarker
GSMNP is implemented through a backcountry management
plan. The backcountry management plan meets the objectives of the park's GMP (GMP
1982). Within GSMNP, the AT covers approximately 70 miles (113 km). It crosses the
75
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
study area at Fontana Dam and runs to Stecoah Gap at an elevation of 3, l 65 feet (965 m), and
then on to Nantahala Gorge. Another approximately 2,000-foot (610-m) section crosses the
study area west of NC 143 through Sweetwater Gap. Roughly 6 miles (9.7 km) of the AT are
within the study area. These portions of the AT are open to hikers only. However, horse use
is allowed on other portions of the AT within GSMNP.
3.4.3 Nantahala National Forest
Nantahala National Forest offers similar opportunities to those of GSMNP as well as
gamelands for hunting and inountain bike trails at the Tsali recreation area. The USFS Land
and Resource Management Plan for Nantahala and Pisgah national forests speaks to the
location and type of recreational opportunities offered. It indicates approximately 180
developed recreation areas exist within Nantahala and Pisgah national forests, including
campgrounds, picnic areas, trailheads, swimming, observation areas, among others. The
USFS also allows motorized recreation such as the use of off-road vehicles on approximately
100,000 acres (40,469 ha) of forest land (USFS 1987).
The Plan's goals include "providing for a forest environment for the public to enjoy while
complying with laws and regulations established for the administration of USFS lands, and to
maintain the unique character of special interest and specially designated areas, including
Wilderness, research natural areas, developed recreation and scenic areas, Native American
religious sites, and significant cultural resources" (USFS 1987).
Recreational opportunities at Fontana Lake are also numerous. They include water skiing,
canoeing, sailing, windsurfing, fishing, swimming, hiking, nature photography, picnicking,
bird watching, and camping. The TVA Visitor's Center offers hot showers and picnic tables.
The lake has boat docks and launching ramps. Fishing is popular at Fontana Lake with its
abundant supply of rainbow, brown, and brook trout, largemouth and smallmouth bass,
walleye, pike, perch, sunfish, and crappie. The historic Fontana Village Resort is a year-
round vacation spot appealing in part due to its ideal location adjacent to GSMNP.
3.4.4 Other �tudyArea Parksand Recreational Faalities
The Swain County Parks and Recreation Master Plan (2002-2012) mission statement is to
"provide a broad spectrum of qualiry leisure services and facilities in order to meet public
needs far social, physical, moral, and economic benefits gained through recreational
opportunities." The master plan was designed as a guide for recreational programs, facilities,
and finances for the communities of Swain County and Bryson City (Swain CountyBryson
City Parks and Recreation Department 2002).
76
Existing park facilities for Swain
County and Bryson City include the
Swain Counry Recreation Park and the
Tuckasegee River Parks System,
which includes Ela Riverside Park,
Bryson Island Park, Riverfront Park,
and Governors Island Park. The
Swain County Recreation Park sits on
32 acres (13 ha) in a residential
neighborhood (Lackey Hill area) in
the northwest portion of Bryson City.
The park was developed over several
years, between 1974 and 1993. The Riverside Park in Bryson Qty
parlc offers ball fields, tennis courts, a
picnic sbelter, a swimming pool complex, playgrounds, basketball courts, horseshoe pits,
beach volleyball court, multi-use field, walking trails, and maintenance faciliry (Swain
County/Bryson Ciry Parks and Recreation Department 2002).
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The Tuckasegee River Parks System consists of Ela Riverside Park, Bryson Island Park,
Riverfront Park, and Governors Island Park. The Ela Park is 4 miles (6.4 krn) east of Bryson
Ciry along the river. It was constructed with TVA funds in 1985 and has a canoe and kayak
launch and a picnic area. The Bryson Island Park is located at the Bryson City portion of the
Tuckasegee River on 7 acres (2.8 ha). It was developed with Land and Water Conservation
Funds in 1987. The island has bordered walkways, an interpretive center, a canoe and kayak
launcb, and picnic areas. Riverfront Park is located within the study area just west of Bryson
City along the Tuckasegee River. Riverfront Park consists of bordered, lighted trails, picnic
areas, a lcayak and raft launch, and a pavilion. Development of Riverfront Park began in
1986 and is ongoing. Governors Island Park is located east of Bryson Ciry along the
Tuckasegee River.
Swain County and Bryson City have developed a master plan for a greenway system along
the Tuckasegee River. The Swain County-Bryson City Greenway Feasibility Study Master
Plan and Report indicates a greenway system would be a valuable asset to the community
because it would provide an alternate means of transportation, become an economic stimulus
to the downtown district, and provide additional recreation opportunities to visitors and area
residents. The proposed route is along an 11-mile (17.7 km) corridor that runs from Fontana
Lake eastward through Bryson Ciry, around the Governors Island area to the TVA Recreation
Area at the eastern point, beyond Kituwah (Swain Counry Economic Development and
Planning Office 2001).
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E�cisting Conditions
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Future plans for Swain County include developing a Tourism Development Plan that
incorporates trails and greenway projects in the counry and includes a proposed museum and
trails along the Nantahala River, downtown revitalization efforts, and a riverwalk in
downtown Bryson City along the Tuckasegee River (NCCES 1999).
Graham County does not have a formal master plan far recreation programs and facilities;
however, a greenway along Long Creek has been proposed within the town of Robbinsville,
as well as a county mountain bike trail system, nearly 95 percent of which would be on USFS
lands. In addition, a trail is proposed along Dry Creek in the EBCI community (NCCES
1999).
3.5 Topography, Geology, and Soils
3.5.1 Topography
The project study area is part of the Great Smoky Mountains. The terrain of the study area is
primarily mountainous. Specifically, it consists of three regions. There are broad to narrow
flats as floodplains of majar rivers and large streams, such as the Tuckasegee and Little
Tennessee Rivers. Rolling hills and shallow slopes are found on lower intermediate
mountains and side ridges. Steep slopes are found on the larger high mountain divides such
as Welch Ridge. The elevations range from approximately ],350 feet (412 m) msl at the
Little Tennessee River on the westernmost edge of the study area to approximately 5,000 feet
(1,524 m) msl along the top of Welch Ridge, as depicted on the following USGS 7.5-minute
quadrangle maps: Bryson City, Cades Cove, Fontana Dam, Noland Creelc, Silers Bald,
Thunderhead Mountain, Tuskeegee, and Wesser.
3.5.2 Regional Geology
GSMNP lies within the Blue Ridge physiographic province. The Blue Ridge is bounded on
the northwest by the Ridge and Valley province, and the boundary is defined by the trace of
the northeast to southwest (NE/SW) trending Blue Ridge Fault System. South and east of
GSMN P, the Blue Ridge borders the Piedmont province of North Carolina with the boundary
following the NE/SW trending Brevard Fault Zone. Rocks within the GSMNP include
metamorphic Precambrian crystalline basement rocks, metamorphic Precambrian
sedimentary rocks, metavolcanic Precambrian rocks, and limited sedimentary rocks
associated with the Ridge and Valley province.
The crystalline basement rocks are primarily gneisses with granitic protoliths (parent rock or
rock type prior to metamorpbism) and metamorphic facies ranging from amphibolite to
granulite. Also, pelitic schists and migmatities are locally abundant (Hatcher and Goldberg
1991). Based on radiometric data, the age of most basement rocks is approximately 1200
78
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
million years before present (Ma). However, some geologists believe that some basement
rocks within GSMNP are as old as 1800 Ma.
The most extensive group of rocks within GSMNP are the unfossiliferous, Precambrian
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks (Espenshade 1963; Hatcher and Goldberg 1991; Moore
1988; Southworth 1995). These rocks belong to the Ocoee Supergroup and consists mostly
of rocks referred to as metasedimentary, meaning that although the rocks are metamorphosed,
they retain much of their sedimentary structure. The Ocoee includes mainly slates, phyllites,
schists, and quartzites — all with varying grades of inetamorphism. The Ocoee Supergroup
has been divided into the following three lithologic units: the Snowbird Group, Great Smoky
Group, and Walden Creek Group. Deposition of the Ocoee Supergroup is believed to be
related to late Precambrian rifting events, which opened the Iapetus Ocean along the margin
of what is now the North American continent. Clastic sediment is believed to have derived
from natural weathering processes of the basement rocks and was most likely deposited in
elongated, subaqueous rift basins by turbidity currents. Metamorphism occurred later as a
result of the deformation related to the Appalachian Orogen. In the western portion of the
parlc, the Ocoee rocks are only slightly metamorphosed (chlorite grade, resulting from low
pressure and low temperature) while metamorphic grade increases to the soutbeast including
kyanite and sillimanite-grades (medium to high pressure and temperature) with metamorphic
isograds tending to follow low-angle thrust faults (Hatcher and Goldberg 1991).
3.5.3 Local Geology
In 1992, Wiener and Merschat completed a
regional (] :250,000) geologic map of
southwestern North Carolina, northeastern
Georgia, and east Tennessee that includes the
entire study area. Also within the study area,
three 7.5-minute quadrangles have been mapped
showing much greater detail of the local geology
and geologic structures. In ] 975, Mohr mapped
the entire Noland Creek quadrangle, and
Southworth (1995) has completed preli�ninary
mapping of GSMNP within the Fontana Dam and
Tuskeegee quadrangles. However, Mohr and
Southworth's detailed field mapping does not
cover the entire study area.
Study Area Rock Formation
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E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.5.3.1 GeologicDes:riptionsalong the North 9�ore of Fontana Lake
Locally, rocks along the northern shore of Fontana Lake and within the study area are
predominately Late Proterozoic, clastic, metasedimentary rocks of the Ocoee Supergroup.
The two exceptions are the basement complex rocks underlying the surrounding area at
Bryson Ciry, and two small mafic intrusive rocks exposed between Eagle Creek and Hazel
Creek in the northwest quadrant of the study area (Wiener and Merschat 1992). A geologic
map of the study area is included as Figure 11. In the following paragraphs, rock units along
the nortb side of Fontana Lake are being described from east to west across the study area
with descriptions beginning at the intersection of Fontana Road and US 19 in Bryson Ciry.
Rocks surrounding Bryson City are the oldest rocks within the study area. These rocks are
considered the basement complex rocks, and are generally metamorphosed granitic and
biotite gneisses. Gneiss is generally a regionally metamorphosed rock in which grainy
minerals separate from platy minerals resulting in foliation or banding of like minerals.
Wiener and Merschat (1992) described this basement rock as a biotite granitic gneiss (Ybgg),
pinlcish-gray to light gray, well-foliated to massive, biotite granitic to quartz monzonitic
(contains more feldspars and less quartz), with local mylonitization (grains are pulverized
during shear, typical within thrust zones) and showing variable grades of inetamorphism.
Following Fontana Road, the western-most contact of this basement rock and the Copperhill
Formation (Zch) is approximately 1.7 miles (2.7 km) northwest of the Fontana Road and US
19 intersection.
The Copperhill Formation (Zch) is primarily a light gray, coars� and medium-grained,
massive- to thick-bedded feldspathic metasandstone (Southworth 1995) ar metagraywacke
(Wiener and Merschat 1992). It also includes beds of inetaconglomerates and nodular calc-
silicate granofels (medium- to coarse-grained rocic with little to no foliation or lineation)
throughout, and minor proportions of a graphitic and sulfidic mica schist. With exception of
the basement complex rocics, the Copperhill Formation is the oldest Proterozoic fonnation in
the study area.
Approximately 0.25 mile (0.4 km) farther west along Fontana Road, lies the conformable (no
apparent missing time in deposition) contact between the Copperhill Formation and younger
Wehutry Formation. The Wehutty Formation (Zwe), as described by Wiener and Merschat
(] 992), is characterized as being dominated by a dark-gray, graphitic and sulfidic, fin�
grained schist with interbedded gray metagraywacke and metaconglomerate and interlayers
of muscovite schist. Schists are strongly foliated metamorphic crystalline rocks that can be
easily split in thin flakes ar plates, and metagraywacke is a metamorphosed sandstone that
contains primarily quartz and feldspar grains as well as grains of accessory minerals. Mohr
(1975) mapped this unit as the Anakeesta Formation and divided it into five sub-units. He
divided the formations using an upper and lower sandstone separated by upper, middle and
:�
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
lower schists. Southworth's (1995) description of the Webutry includes a metasandstone,
metasiltstone, and phyllite (a low-grade metamorphic argillaceous rock with shiny cleavage
surfaces). He also states, "they (Wehutty rocks) contain abundant graphite and sulfide
minerals and they physically resemble rocks of the Anakeesta Formation." However,
Southworth (1995) went on to state that cross sections by earlier authors bave shown that the
Wehutry Formation is stratigraphically and structurally higher than the Anakeesta Formation.
Therefore, the Anakeesta Formation is nonexistent within the study area. However, dark
schists and metashales similar to the Anakeesta rocks are found throughout the study area.
Lake View Road extends across a complete section of the Wehutty Formation and reenters
the Copperhill Formation within the westem limb of the Murphy synclinorium. Lake View
Road trends north for approximately 0.2 mile (0.3 km) and turns 180 degrees back due south,
crossing back into the Wehutty Formation. Lake View Road begins a westward trend and
after approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) the road leaves the Wehutty Formation and crosses back
into the Copperhill Formation. This contact crosses beneath Lake View Road while
descending the ridgeline to cross Noland Creek. Approximately 1.2 miles (1.9 km)
northwest, Lake View Road ends within the Copperhill Formation at the end of the existing
tunnel.
The eastern contact separating the Copperhill Formation from a subdivision known as the
Slate of the Copperhill Formation is approximately 13 miles (21 km) due west (Wiener and
Merschat 1992). The Slate of the Copperhill Formation (Zchs), as described by Wiener and
Merschat (1992), consists of mappable bodies of dark-gray to black, graphitic, sulfidic slate,
phyllite and schist. This fonnation includes interbedded, dark-gray metagraywacke ranging
from fine-grained to conglomeratic. This formation contains the massive sulfide deposits
associated with the Swain County copper districts. Southworth (1995) described these rocks
as forming steep, rusty-stained cliff exposures with no vegetation and being very similar to
the Anakeesta and Wehutty Formations. Locally, some metagraywacke units within this area
are slightly calcareous and weather easily upon exposure (Espenshade 1963).
The exposed width of the Slate of the Copperhill Formation varies due to folding related to
the Murphy Synclinorium. The exposure is widest in the study area and narrows as it trends
northeast toward Clingman's Dome. Near the Swain County, North Carolina, and Sevier
County, Tennessee line, this formation follows an eastern trend and shows its structural
relation within the Murphy Synclinorium.
Approximately 2.8 miles (4S km) due west, lies the western contact separating the
subdivided slate unit from the main body of the Copperhill Formation. From that contact
west to the boundary of the study area, the rocks are mapped as the previously described
Copperhill Formation.
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E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Within the Slate of the Copperhill Formation, two small yet mappable mafic intrusive dikes
(Pzd) are shown. A dike is a discordant, tabular intrusive rock that crosscuts the surrounding
country rock (ar rock that was in place prior to intrusion). Wiener and Merschat (] 992)
described these dike rocks as metadiorite, metabasalt, and amphibolite. These dikes are dark
gray to black, medium- to coars�grained rocks containing primarily well formed,
equigranular crystals of hornblende and plagioclase.
3.5.3.2 GeologicDescriptionsin the Southeastern Quadrant of the 3udyArea
Rocks of the Ocoee Supergroup dominate the southeastern portion of the study area. The one
exception is the Tusquitee Quartzite, a member of the Murphy Group. In this location, the
rocics make up the interior of the Murphy Synclinorium, and the fold axis separating each
limb is approximately located along a large thrust fault that follows the Graham and Swain
county boundaries and terminates prior to crossing Fontana Lake. These rocks are
stratigraphically higher (or younger) than the rocks previously discussed.
Four additional formations and one subdivision, as described by Wiener and Merschat
(1992), appear within the study area's southeast quadrant. The formation names and map
units as shown in Figure 1] are as follows: The Grassy Branch Formation (Zgb), the
Ammons Formation (Zam), the Horse Branch member (Zamb) of the Ammons Formation,
the Dean Formation (Zd), and the Tusquitee Quartzite (Znt).
The Grassy Branch Formation is a metasandstone and muscovite schist unit divided into
upper and lower parts. The upper portion contains a gray to dark-gray, porphyroblastic
muscovite schist and gray metasandstone. The lower member is primarily a gray
metasandstone with subordinate muscovite schist. Mohr (1975) mapped and named this unit,
and his description also includes bedded and nodular calo-silicate granofels. Porphyroblasts
include chlorite, biotite, garnet, and staurolite. He described the metasandstone as fine-
grained to pebbly containing quartz, feldspar with minar biotite and with bed thicknesses of
approximately 6 feet (1.8 m). The lower unit shows graded bedding within the
metasandstone separated by 1-foot (03-m) thick beds of muscovite schist. The Grassy
Branch Formation is conformably overlain by the Ammons Forrnation (Mohr 1975).
The Ammons Formation (Zam) is a metasandstone with abundant metasiltstone and
muscovite schist. The metasandstone is medium- to fine-grained, quartz, feldspar and biotite,
light-gray in colar. The schist and metasiltstone contain the same minerals with the addition
of minor amounts of magnetite (Wiener and Merschat 1992).
The Ammons Formation contains even beds of inetasandstone approximately 4 feet (1.2 m)
thick separated by thin (few inches thick [�7.6 cm]) beds of schist and metasiltstone with a
total thickness of approximately 4,000 to 5,000 feet (1,219 to 1,524 m) (Mohr 1975). Within
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E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
the study area, one subdivision of the Ammons Formation is exposed. The Horse Branch
Member (Zamh) conformably overlies the Ammons Formation west of a fault trace in
Graham County. The unit is primarily a dark-gray, graphitic and sulfdic mica schist and
metasiltstone with interbeds of light-colored metagraywacke, metasiltstone, and muscovite
schist. Also, the Horse Branch Member contains a white to bluish-white, thicic-bedded,
metaquartzite and a porphyroblastic mica schist with garnet and biotite porphyroblasts (Mohr
1975; Wiener and Merschat 1992).
The youngest unit of Ocoee rocks in the study area is the Dean Formation (Zd). Wiener and
Merschat (1992) described the Dean Formation as a light-colored sericite schist containing
cross-biotite, garnet, and staurolite porphyroblasts. Also, this formation contains beds of
metagraywacke and quartz pebble conglomerate in minor amounts in the middle and upper
portions (Wiener and Merschat 1992). Mohr (1975) described the Dean Formation as
dominated by a metasandstone and porphyroblastic muscovite schist. The description also
included nodular and bedded calo-silicate granofels. The metasandstone is gray, fin� to
coarse-grained, graded and evenly bedded with bed thicknesses of approximately 6 feet (1.8
m). Mohr (1975) states that the upper portion of the Dean Formation has been removed from
the local area by faulting.
The Tusquitee Quartzite/Nantahala Formation (Znt) lies east of the Dean Formation across
the Swain County line. This rock unit is predominantly a white to buff feldspathic quartzite
with numerous thin layers of darlc-gray argillite and dark-gray sulfidic, thin-bedded argillite
(Wiener and Merschat 1992). The Noland Creek geologic quad shows the Nantahala
Formation separate from the Tusquitee Quartzite and includes the Tusquitee as a subgroup of
the Nantahala Formation (Mohr 1975). The description includes a black, sulfidic schist
interlaminated with a dark-gray to white quartzose metasiltstone. Mohr (1975) also described
this unit as containing a few 3-foot (0.9-m) thick beds of white metaquartzite.
3.5.3.3 Quaternary Deposits
Southworth (1995) mapped alluvial, diamicton, and terrace deposits separately within the
Tuskeegee and Fontana Dam quadrangles. These deposits are the result of a variety of mass-
wasting events that occur in mountainous terrain. The alluvial deposits are described and
mapped as the unconsolidated mixtures of clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders
underlying the floodplains of creeks, streams, and tributaries. 1'hese 40-foot (] 2-m) thick
deposits are well- to poorly-stratified and fining upward. Tributaries located in steep terrain
are commonly underlain by boulder and cobbl�sized rock debris (Southworth 1995).
Diamicton deposits occur in hillside depressions, hollows and coves throughout the study
area. These units are unconsolidated, non-sorted to poorly sorted, boulders and cobble-sized
deposits of inetasandstone transported by gravity and debris flows. These deposits have a
83
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
sand, silt, and clay matrix. They are generally transitional to alluvial deposits in stream
valleys. Diamicton deposits range in thickness from a thin veneer to a maximum of 40 feet
(12 m) thick (Southworth 1995).
The Eagle Creek area contains terrace deposits of unconsolidated sands, gravels, cobbles, and
small boulders. These deposits exist as nearly flat-lying benches above the Eagle Creek
channel. The terrace deposits are as thick as 10 feet (3 m) and occur as high as 160 feet (49
m) above the Eagle Creek channe] (Southworth l 995).
3.5.4 Mineral Resources
The Swain County copper district consisted of two separate mines, the Fontana mine (known
locally as the Eagle Creek mine) and the Hazel Creek mine (known locally as the Sugar Fork
mine). A brief period of mining operations occurred in 1900 at the Hazel Creek mine;
however, these operations ended the same year. This mine remained closed until late 1942.
The Fontana mine was discovered by the Montvale Lumber Company in the early 1900s and
was later owned by the Ducktown Mining and Iron Co., followed by the Tennessee
Corporation. Both mines ceased operations in 1944 following the flooding of the Little
Tennessee River, which inundated transportation facilities. The Hazel Creek mine produced
in excess of 415,722 pounds (188,568 kilograms [kg]) of copper, and the Fontana mine,
during 18 years of operations, produced approximately 83 million pounds (37.6 million kg) of
copper (Espenshade 1963).
A 1991 NPS memorandum from the Chief of the Mineral Resources Section of the Mining
and Minerals Branch Land Resources Division to the Chief of the Mining and Minerals
Branch Land Resources Division regarding the "Investigation of Abandoned Copper Mines
in Great Smoky Mountains National Park to Determine their Suitability as Nonpoint Source
Projects" examined the safety of the mine openings at Fontana inine and Hazel Creek mine.
The memo indicated that in 1987, actions were taken to preserve the bat habitat and safery
measures were also taken at both sites to ensure some measure of public safety. However,
some mine openings were left unfenced or ungated and these still pose a potential safety
hazard to the public due to their age and instability (NPS 1991).
The ore bodies within the mining district contain the copper sulfide ore mineral chalcopyrite,
the iron sulfide ore mineral pyrrhotite, and the zinc sulfide ore mineral sphalerite. While
these sulfides were the primary ore minerals of interest at that period, other ore minerals
within the ore bodies included the galena (lead sulfide), magnetite (iron oxide), and an arsenic
are mineral possibly realgar (arsenic sulfide). Secondary trace minerals like gold and silver
were included in this ore deposit, and an undocumented quantity of these minerals were
extracted during the mining operations (Southworth 1995). Also, gossan deposits exist
within the mining district. A gossan deposit is an iron-bearing weathered zone overlying or
84
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
capping the sulfide deposit. This zone occurs as a result of groundwater infiltration and the
leaching of copper from the overlying deposit. This copper leaching results in a zone of
enriched copper underlying the gossan cap.
In addition to the Swain County Copper District, numerous small exploration pits and
prospects exist throughout the study area. Mohr (1975) mapped six separate prospects within
the Noland Creek quadrangle. These prospects were primarily developed for sulfide ores;
however, kaolinite, beryl, and quartzite were also prospected in these locations (Mohr 1975).
3.5.5 3ructural Geology
Regionally, the Blue Ridge is marked by major thrust faulting events, which have occurred at
different intervals in its geologic history. Thrust faults are shallow dipping reverse faults in
which the rock becomes detached and gets shoved on top and across the underlying rock.
Hatcher and Goldberg (1991) described these thrust systems as containing tbin-skinned thrust
sheets. That is, rocks have became completely detached from the basement rocks and
deformation within the separated thrust sheets occurs independently. All rocks exposed in
the study area are the hanging-wall rocks of the large thrusts, or simply the rock mass that has
been transported above the fault surface. Thrust faults in this area show a direction of
displacement toward the northwest with dip direction to the southeast (Espenshade 1963).
More evidence of thrust faulting occurs within the study area at the contact between the
basement complex and the Copperhill Formation. Structurally, this area is mapped as a
fenster (or a window through the thrust sheet created by erosional processes that exposes
underlying rocks of the footwall), in which the basement gneiss (Ybgg) is totally surrounded
by metasedimentary rocks of the Copperhill Formation (Zch). The window to the basement
rocks, shown in plain view as a thrust fault on Figure 11, is an elliptical-shaped opening that
enco�npasses an area of approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) by 6 miles (9.7 km) with the long-
axis oriented northeast and southwest.
Another large structure underlying the eastern portion of the study area is the Murphy
Synclinorium. This structure is a regional composite of lesser folds and is recognized in
Figure 11 where the Wehutry Fon�nation (Zwe) forms a northeasterly point just outside the
study area above Lake View Road. The Wehutty rocks are surrounded or wrapped by older
strata (Copperhill Formation), and younger strata line the interior of the Wehuriy following
the same curvature. Mohr's (1975) map includes a cross section showing the western limb of
the Murphy Synclinorium.
As is commonly associated with thrust systems, the study area includes smaller scale folding
and faulting throughout. This type of deformation creates both convex and concave folds
(plastic deformation) until the rocks cannot withstand the stresses being applied. When this
85
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
occiirs, the rocks become detached along weak planes creating faults (brittle deformation).
Southworth (1995) and Mohr (1975) show alternating synclines (hinge down) and anticlines
(hinge up) separated by occasional faults in each of their cross sections. The hinge lines of
these folds and strike of the faults are generally oriented northeast and southwest. Locally,
strike and dip of bedding and cleavage surfaces vary across the site due to multiple episodes
of deformation.
3.5.6 General Geotechnical and Geologic Design Consderations
The extension of Lake View Road from Swain County west through GSMNP will cover
complex mountainous terrain with complicated geologic structures. Steep terrain and
complex geological issues will necessitate geological, geotechnical, and engineering expertise
throughout all phases of the project, including design and construction. The following
paragraphs discuss some of the factors that could impact the overall geotechnical design.
3.5.6.1 Acid-Pl-oducing f�ck Units
A review of published geologic data indicates that due to their mineral content, rocks
underlying the entire study area have the propensity to produce acidic drainage. Acid
drainage results from the chemical breakdown of iron sulfide minerals like pyrite and
pyrrhotite. Although natural weathering of these rocks generates acidic conditions, their
excavation (without proper handling) can expedite and exacerbate the production of acid
drainage. Unless abated, acid drainage can adversely impact water qualiry by becoming
enriched with heavy metals such as copper, zinc, and lead (Seal et al. 1995).
Seal et al. (l 995) concurred that the shale units and the metamorphic equivalents, such as the
Anakeesta Formation as mapped by Mohr (1975), the Wehutty Formation (Zwe) and portions
of the Copperhill Formation (Zch), have acid-producing potential with an extremely low acid-
buffering capacity. Each of these units contains varying amounts of pyrite and pyrrhotite,
which is a significant source of acid (Seal et al. 1995). Southworth (] 995) stated that the
rocks within the study area naturally affect the pH of surface water. Stream and spring
affluent samples collected along the study area in the Wehutty Formation contained pH
values as low as 2.7. Also, sediments collected along the mouth of Hazel Creek in Fontana
Lake showed an elevated increase in copper content, which indicates the input of inetal
compounds (Southworth 1995).
The name Anakeesta has become a generic term for rocks capable of producing acid
drainage, especially in the Blue Ridge region that embraces GSMNP. The name Anakeesta
Formation was applied to a rock unit within the Great Smokey Group of rocks by P.B. King
during the geologic mapping program in the northwestern portion of GSMNP, and indeed this
rocic unit does have high potential to generate acid drainage. However, there are some
:.
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
misunderstandings about the use of the term Anakeesta, especially among non-geologists.
One misconception is that the Anakeesta Formation is the only rock unit within the Ocoee
Supergroup capable of producing acid drainage when essentially all of the rock units can
contain sufficient concentrations of minerals such as pyrite to produce acid drainage. The
fact that the Anakeesta Formation is not shown on the geologic maps of the southeastern
portion of the GSMNP embracing the North Shore Road project does not mean that
Anakeesta-like rocks are not present.
D. W. Byerly (1981, 1982, 1987, 1988a, 1988b, 1989, 1990a, 1990b, 1991a, 1991b, 1993,
l 994, 1995, and 1996), Professor Emeritus of Geological Sciences at the Universiry of
Tennessee, has conducted research on the production of acid drainage associated with rocks
in the Blue Ridge including those of the Ocoee Supergroup present in the project study area.
Dr. Byerly has assisted with design and construction of various facilities, including roads, in
the same rocks. According to Dr. Byerly (pers. comm. 2003):
■ Anakeesta-like formations should not be considered the sole rock rype with acid-
generating potential. Carbonaceous rocks such as dark-colored schists, slates or
phyllites are not the only rock types to produce acid. Sulfide minerals may be
disseminated with significant concentrations in light-colored rocks like graywacke,
conglomerates, and their metamorphic equivalents etc.... the pyrite, pyrrhotite, or
marcasite (pyrite polymorph) is often scattered throughout these rock types, and of a
form that easily decomposes (Byerly 1990).
■ It is likely that 99% of rocks within the study area could generate acid. These rocks,
when excavated, would require special handling during all phases of construction,
especially if used for fill material.
■ The Copperhill Formation (Zch) is a serious acid-producing formation. This rock unit
dominates the study area and is the only rock unit left between the unconnected
segments of Lake View Road.
Generally, the more carbonaceous and finer-textured rocks have the highest potential for
producing acid drainage. This is a characteristic related to tbe ancient environments in wbich
the sediment comprising these rock types was deposited. All rocks can contain concentrations
of the minerals capable of producing acid drainage, but these occurrences cannot be predicted
with certainty even with the use of geophysical testing techniques such as the Self-Potential
(SP) and Induced Polarization (IP) methods. No geological testing is anticipated for the EIS
process. Because of the nature of these rocks, it is therefore prudent to consider all of the
rocks capable of producing acid drainage (Byerly 2003). Engineering properties of soil and
rock vary dramatically across the study area. If a build or partial build alternative is selected
as the preferred alternative, geotechnical investigations will be completed as necessary.
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E�cisting Conditions
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3.5.6.2 Fxposure of Acid-R�oducing kbdc
Excavations and rock cuts within regions of substantial topographic relief usually require
relatively large easements to effectively lay back slopes and minimize the potential of
rockslides or landslides. In steep terrain, the use of a 2:1 or greater slope to minimize surface
area disturbance could still lead to an extensive amount of surface area necessary for
exposing acid-generating rock materials. Areas requiring cut and fill designs will require
detailed studies of the geologic structures and characteristics to minimize stability issues as
well as potential acid drainage.
The design of traditional cut-and-fill roads in mountainous terrain generally requires that very
large volumes of material be disturbed while excavating cut slopes and building road
embankments. When the surface area of acid-producing material is increased during
excavation, natural weathering processes are accelerated and the potential for acid drainage is
increased (Byerly 1990). When dealing with acid-producing rock units, Byerly (1996)
believes that mountainous terrains in humid, warm environments present the greatest
challenge. In these situations, substantial volumes of excavated acid-producing material can
be disturbed and exposed, and the fi-esh, in-situ rocks of the cuts are permanently exposed to
weathering elements. Also, the warm and wet climate greatly increases the rate at which
oxidation of the exposed material occurs (1996).
To avoid or minimize adverse impacts to plants, wildlife, and water quality when excavating
acid-producing material, special design and construction practices are required. Such
practices include, but are not limited to the following:
■ excavation of acid-producing rock should be avoided where possible and always
minimized (Byerly 1990a);
■ sites for disposal of all anticipated acid-producing rocks should be identified during the
corridor selection phase;
■ using state-of-th�art technology in the design of encapsulating sites to isolate and
neutralize materials with acid-potential and prevent the mobilization of inetals;
■ designing road grades and alignments based on the rock's acid-producing potential,
including the use of bridging, cantilevered roadways, and "top-down" construction
techniques in areas where minimal disturbance is necessary;
■ designing diversion systems to prevent surface drainage and groundwater from
contacting excavations and embankments where acid-producing material is used for fill;
and
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E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
monitoring water quality and tbe surrounding plant and animal life.
There are several methods used to mitigate excavated acid-producing material. For example,
The FHWA uses mitigation guidelines (Byerly 1990a) based on the results of preliminary
design Net Acid-Base Accounting (NAB) tests. The following is a brief description of NAB
procedures taken from Byerly (1996). NAB tests are conducted on rock samples taken from
the proposed alignment. For NAB, pulverized rock is tested in a laboratory to determine the
rock's acid-producing potential (AP) as well as its acid-neutralizing potential (NP). Both the
AP and NP are expressed in tons of calcium carbonate per 1,000 pounds of excavated
material. The net neutralization potential (NNP) is the NP excess or deftciency determined by
subtracting the value of AP from the value of NP. The NNP values are used to extrapolate
quantities of the material that is to be disturbed. When the NNP values show excess quantities
of AP material, FHWA guidelines as well as Tennessee Department of Transportation
guidelines (1990) outline mitigation procedures for this material using a combination of the
following five techniques:
■ Complete removal offsite to a landfill or area designed to accept the material may be
required if neutralizing material is not readily available for encapsulation or if excess
quantities of fill materials are exposed.
■ Blending is used for relatively low acid-producing material. Blending involves mixing
rocks with AP with rocks that have NP to create fill material for embankments.
■ Treatment is used when acid potential is relatively low to medium. This technique is a
modified blending process that requires the placement of pulverized agricultural lime at
predetermined intervals atop the blended fill material.
■ Encapsulation is used when acid potential is relatively medium to high. This process
involves totally encompassing the acidic rock with neutralizing material, low-
permeability soils, and geotextile membranes to prevent exposure to water and oxygen.
■ An engineered drainage system is required to prevent surface drainage and groundwater
from passing through the deleterious rock fill area.
Acid-producing rock material not used for fill will require expedited removal and transport to
an appropriate landfill or designated site for proper disposal. The quantity of acid producing
material generated during excavations and the quantiry of neutralizing material, such as lime,
limestone, and cover material, must be carefully evaluated prior to construction to ensure
qualiry control.
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E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.5.6.3 Fxposure of Acid-FYoduang �ck in Tunnel Desgn
Should more tunneling be considered within areas of substantial vertical relief, detailed
geological and geotechnical studies must be conducted to minimize geologic hazards in this
structurally complex region. As previously stated, regional structures strike
northeast/soutbwest and dip to the soutbeast; however, local attitudes of minar folds, faults,
cleavage, bedding planes, and joint sets throughout the study area show moderate to steep dip
angles with varying strike and dip directions. In these situations, slope stability and the
structural geology of localized areas should be thoroughly investigated to minimize the
potential of future wedge failures and other mass wasting events that could potentially impact
the road surface. Tunneling would also expose large volumes of rock material that would
require mitigation if NNP values showed acid potential.
3.5.7 Soils
The process of soil development depends on both biotic and abiotic influences. These
influences include past geologic activities, nature of parent materials, environmental and
human influences, plant and animal activity, time, climate, and topographic position. Soil
surveys from the 1940s and 1950s exist for Graham and Swain counties; however, this
information is so outdated that it has become somewhat useless. According to Mr. Tim
Harlan, Swain County Natural Resources Conservation Service soil scientist, updated soil
surveys for the counties have not been completed. Soil mapping on privately held lands in
Graham and Swain counties is approximately 50 percent completed. (Harlan, pers. comm.
2003). Soil mapping within GSMNP is expected to be completed within two years.
(Thomas, pers. comm. 2003).
As of November 2003, an interim soil association map had been developed for the GSMNP.
However, this is interim information and is subject to change once soil mapping has been
completed. (USDA 2003). For the remaining portions of the project study area, Mr. Harlan,
in cooperation with Mr. Thomas, developed a generalized soil association map using an
existing geologic map (received by ARCADIS on May 27, 2003). The information provided
by Mr. Harlan and Mr. Thomas is based on incomplete field data and should be considered as
a rough draft. Figure 12 shows the information from the interim and draft soil associations
maps for the project study area.
Soil associations serve as the primary data for understanding the rypes of soils that exist
within the study area. A soil association generally consists of a distinct pattern of soils, relief,
and drainage. Typically, a soil association consists of one or more major soils and some
minor soils. It is named for the major soils; however, the soils making up one soil association
can also occur in other soil associations. Therefore, soil associations provide a broad
perspective of the soils and the landscapes in a particular area. According to the interim soil
.�
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
association map, the following five soil associations are located within the GSMNP portion
of the project study area: Cataska-Sylco-Spivey Association, Cataska-Sylco-Tsali
Association, Junaluska-Brasstown-Spivey Association, Oconaluftee-Guyot-Chiltoskie
Association, and Soco-Stecoah-Spivey Association. According to the rough draft soil
association map, tbe following three soil associations are located in the remaining portions of
the project study area: Sylco-Cataska-Spivey-Junaluska-Tsali Association, Evard-Cowe�
Trimont Association, and Soco-Stecoah-Cheoah-Spivey-Junaluska-Brasstown Association.
The Cataska-Sylco-Spivey Association in the project study area follows a geologic feature
extending from Fontana Dam to the northern boundary of the project study area. Soils in this
association are found along side slopes, ridges, and drainageways. These soils range from
moderately deep to shallow and are very low in plant nutrients. Upland soils, landslides, and
heath balds dominate the landscape where this association occurs. Soils found on heath balds
can be in both frigid or mesic temperature regimes. The minor soils included in this
association are Clingman and Peregrine, both of wbich are found on heath balds.
The Cataska-Sylco-Tsali Association covers the far eastern section of the GSMNP portion of
the project study area. Soils found in this association are similar to the soils found in the
Cataska-Sylco-Spivey Association and, therefore, the association description is the same as
above.
The Junaluska-Brasstown-Spivey Association is found north of Fontana Lake from Noland
Creek to just east of Hazel Creek. Soils in this association were formed from shale, slate, and
metasandstone. Junaluska soils dominate the association and are moderately deep to soft
bedrock. Brasstown soils are deep to soft metasandstone. Both of these soils are residual and
well drained. Spivey soils were formed from colluvial material that was deposited in the
drains and cove-like areas and is very deep and well drained.
The Oconalufte�Guyot-Chiltoskie Association can be found along higher elevations on
Welch Ridge in the project study area. T1�is association is comprised of upland soils found on
rocic outcrops and heath balds. Oconaluftee and Guyot soils are located on side slopes and
Chiltoskie soils are located in colluvial areas. These soils range from very deep to
moderately deep. Minor soils in this association include Cataloochee on the residual side
slopes and ridges, Breakneck and Pullback on very steep side slopes, Heintooga and
Horsetrough in colluvial areas, Clingman and Pergrine on heath balds, and Alarka, Wesser,
and Whiteside in hanging coves with organic mats.
The Soco-Stecoah-Spivey Association encompasses the majoriry of the GSMNP portion of
the project study area. Soils in this association are likely to be found on heath balds, rock
outcrops, colluvial areas, and shaded head slopes. They range from moderately deep to deep.
Soco and Stecoah soils are found on side slopes and ridges and Spivey soils are found in
91
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
colluvial areas. Minor soils in this association include Junaluska and Brasstown on side
slopes and ridges, Cheoah on shaded head slopes, Clingman and Peregrine on heath balds,
Dimey and Unicoi on very steep sides slopes, Santeelah and Nowhere in colluvial areas, and
Alarka, Wesser, and Whiteside in hanging coves with rhododendron and white pine or
hemlock canopy.
The Sylco-Cataska-Spivey-Junaluska-Tsali Association covers a large portion of the
southeastern quarter of the project study area from Meetinghouse Mountain to Jackson Line
Mountain. This association is also found on the western side of the study area, including
Fontana Dam and Jenkins Ridge. Soils in this association are rypically found in coves, on toe
slopes, and along drainageways associated with intermediate sized mountains. Slopes in
these areas range from 30 to 95 percent. This association is comprised of an equal mix of the
nominal soil rypes, with the minor soils occupying approximately 37 percent of the mapping
unit.
The moderately deep, well-drained Sylco soils and the shallow, excessively drained Cataska
soils are found on ridgetops and side slopes in the intermediate mountains. T'hese soils are on
moderately steep to very steep slopes and are underlain by hard weathered slate. Spivey soils
are very deep, well-drained, cobbly soils that typically occur in coves, on toe slopes, and
along drainageways. They formed in colluvium and local alluvium moved downslope from
soils underlain by slightly to highly metamorphosed rocks of sedimentary origin (USDA
2003). Junaluska and Tsali soils are well drained and on steep south-facing ridgetops and
side slopes. 'The primary difference between these two soil types is depth to bedrock, with
Junaluska soils being moderately deep and Tsali soils being somewhat shallow. The minor
soils of this first association include Santeetlah soils in drainageways and Cheoah soils on
north facing side slopes.
The Evard-Cowe�Trimont Association is present within the far eastern section of the study
area, encompassing the relatively flat Bryson City area. Soils in this association are typically
found on low mountains that have long side slopes and narrow, winding ridgetops and
drainageways. Evard soils comprise over half of the soils in this association with Cowee and
Trimont comprising a significantly lesser extent. The minor soils occupy approximately 30
percent of the land area.
The Evard series consists of very deep, well-drained, moderately permeable soils on
ridgetops and sideslopes that are commonly south-facing. Cowee soils are similar to Evard,
except that they are generally shallower. Once considered a minor soil, the Trimont series is
now considered to be com�non. It is present in cool, shaded side slopes and heads of coves.
Beyond differences in topographical position, the Trimont soils are similar to Evard soils.
The minor soils include Dellwood, French, Nikwasi, and Reddies soils on flood plains;
92
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Cullasaja, Tate, and Tuckasegee soils in coves; Chestnut and Edneyville soils on intermediate
mountains; and Fannin soils in areas that have a higher content of mica on low, rolling hills.
The Soco-Stecoah-Cheoah-Spivey-Junaluska-Brasstown Association covers the central
portion of the study area and small areas in the western and eastern corners. The central
portion of the study area includes Cable Cove and Stecoah Creek on the southern side of
Fontana Lake, and Hazel and Forney creeks on the northern side of Fontana Lake. Soils in
this association are typically found in coves, on toe slopes, and along drainageways in the
intermediate mountains. Soco and Stecoah soils are dominant, and combined they occupy
approximately half of the land area within the association. The Cheoah, Spivey, Junaluska,
and Brasstown soils collectively cover more than 25 percent of the land area in the
association, with the minor soils occupying the remaining land.
The moderately deep, well-drained Soco soils and the deep, well-drained Stecoah soils are
found on ridgetops and side slopes that are usually south-facing. These soils are found on
moderately steep to very steep slopes and underlain by weathered, fractured metamorphic
rocic. The Cheoah series consists of deep, well-drained soils on side slopes that are
commonly north facing. Spivey soils, as previously noted, are very deep, well-drained,
cobbly soils that typically occur along drainageways. They formed in colluvium and local
alluvium moved downslope from soils underlain by slightly to highly metamorphosed rocks
of sedimentary origin (USDA 2003). Junaluska soils are inoderately deep, well-drained, and
located on steep south facing ridgetops and side slopes. Brasstown soils are deep, well
drained, and also located on ridgetops and side slopes (USDA 2003). Tl�e minor soils include
Dellwood, French, Nikwasi, and Reddies soils along flood plains, and Santeetlah soils in
coves and on toe slopes.
Hydric soils are defined as soils that are saturated, flooded, or ponded long enough during the
growing season to develop anaerobic conditions that favor the growth and regeneration of
hydrophytic vegetation (Coward et al. 1979). Due to the lack of functional soil surveys far
the area, the extent and location of hydric soils in the project study area is unknown. The
NRCS has listed Cullowhe�Nikwasi complex, Hemphill clay loam, and Nikwasi loam as
hydric soils in Graham County (December ] 996) and Silva-Whiteside complex as a hydric
soil in Swain Counry (January 1997).
Due to the immensiry of the project study area, engineering constraints and geo-technical
properties of the soils vary dramatically across the landscape. Presently, no information
concerning the engineering constraints or geo-technical properties of the soils is available.
However, if a build or partial-build alternative is selected as the preferred alternative,
appropriate investigations of the soils' properties will be conducted within the preferred
alternative corridor.
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3.6 Water Resouroes
The study area is within the Little Tennessee River Basin, which is in the Blue Ridge
physiographic province of the Appalachian Mountains. The boundaries of the Little
Tennessee River Basin lie in North Carolina or on the Tennessee line with the headwater
reaches located in Georgia. The basin includes approximately 1,800 miles (2,897 km) of
stream channel in Macon, Swain, Jackson, Clay, Graham, and Cherokee counties of North
Carolina. The Cherokee Indian Reservation and federal lands account far approximately 49
percent of the basin's watershed. Nearly all of the federal lands are forested, as are most of
the privately held lands. The portion of the watershed that is not forested is primarily utilized
for agriculture or for residential homes (North Carolina Division of Water Quality [NCDWQ]
2002).
The Southeast Regional Climate Center (SERCC) monitors weather stations across the
southeastern United States; one of its sites is located less than 10 miles (16 km) northeast of
Bryson Ciry (35°31'N, 83° 18'W). Data were collected at this station from November 1958
through December 2001, with monthly normal climate data summarized from 1971 to 2000.
The normal annual precipitation for the area is 58.4 inches (148.3 centimeters [cm]), with
March and September having the highest and lowest monthly rain totals, respectively
(SERCC 2003). The normal daily maximum temperature is 68.5 °F (20.3 °C), and the
average daily minimum temperature is 38.9 °F (3.8 °C) (SERCC 2003).
3.6.1 Rarface Waters
The largest surface waters within tbe project study area include Fontana Lake, the
Tuckasegee River, the Little Tennessee River, and the Nantahala River. Additionally, there
are a large number of tributary streams to the larger surface waters. The project shidy area is
situated in U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) hydrologic
unit 06010203 and NCDWQ Subbasin 04-04-02.
Surface waters that are discussed in this report are
limited to named, perennial streams, as depicted on the
USGS 7.5-minute topographic quadrangle maps of the
project study area. These USGS maps include Bryson
City, Cades Cove, Fontana Dam, Noland Creek, Silers
Bald, Thunderhead Mountain, Tuskeegee, and Wesser.
Surface waters are listed in Appendix B by NCDWQ
Stream Index number. Figure 13 identifies the surface
waters in the project study area.
The NCDWQ classifies surface waters of the state based
on their existing or proposed uses. The primary
Typical of Streamsin StudyArea
94
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
classification system distinguishes the following three basic usage categories: waters used for
public water supply and food processing (Classes WS-I through WS-V); waters used for
frequent swimming or bathing (Class B); and waters used for neither of these purposes (Class
C) (NCDWQ 2002). Public water supply watersheds are designated WS-I, WS-II, WS-III,
WS-IV, or WS-V depending on the type and density of development in the watershed, with
WS-I as the least developed and WS-V as the most densely urbanized. Class B waters are
protected for pri�nat-y recreation activities, including swimming, and all Class C uses. Class C
waters are protected for fishing, boating, aquatic life, and other uses.
Supplemental classifications may be applied to surface waters that identify unique
characteristics of that system and may add additional protective measures. 1'he supplemental
classification critical area, denoted CA, means the area is adjacent to a water supply intake or
reservoir where the risk associated with pollution is greater than from the other portions of
the watershed. The critical area is defined as extending either 0.5 mile (0.8 km) from the
normal pool elevation of the reservoir in which the intake is located or to the ridgeline of the
watershed. The NCDWQ or local governments may extend the critical area for added
protection (15A NCAC 02B .0202). Water supply watersheds and critical areas are depicted
on Figure 13.
The supplemental classification Tr denotes Trout Waters. Designated Trout Waters are
protected for natural trout propagation and survival of stocked trout. In order to adequately
protect these sensitive fish, more protective standards for turbidity, dissolved oxygen,
toluene, chlorophyll-a, cadmium, and total residual cblorine levels may be applied. Streams
designated as Trout Waters in GSMNP are managed by the Park for native trout. The Park
does not stock its streams. The following streams in the study area outside of GSMNP are
stocked with rainbow, brook, and brown trout by the North Carolina Wildlife Resources
Commission (NCWRC): Panther Creek, Stecoah Creek, Deep Creek, and Alarka Creek.
3.6.1.1 Lower Little Tennessee f3ver Major Drainage Area
The Little Tennessee River is the primary drainage for the project study area. The Nantahala
River drains the southeastem portion of the project study area and empties into the Little
Tennessee River at Fontana Lake. The Tuckasegee River drains the eastern and northeastern
portions of the project study area and empties into the Little Tennessee River at Fontana
Lake. All streams draining into the main body of Fontana Lake will be included in the
discussion of the Lower Little Tennessee River drainage area. The Nantahala and
Tuckasegee rivers and Fontana Lake are discussed in the following sections.
The Little Tennessee River flows in a northerly direction from Georgia into North Carolina,
is impounded as Fontana Lake, continues into Tennessee, and empties into the Tennessee
River. The Little Tennessee River flows into Fontana Lalce at the southeastern edge of the
95
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
study area. The backwaters of the lake extend beyond the project study area. Alarka Creek
drains the eastern portion of the study area and flows into the lake at Grant Branch. Eagle,
Hazel, and Chambers creeks are the main tributaries north of Fontana Lake and are located
within GSMNP. The southern portion of the study area is drained by Wolf, Stecoah, Sawyer,
and Tuskegee creeks. Cheoah Lake begins immediately downstream of Fontana Dam.
Tributaries to Cheoah Lake within the project study area include Walker Branch, Panel
Branch, Welch Cove Branch, Gold Branch, Lewellyn Branch, and Sweet Branch.
The Basinwide Water Quality Management Plan for the Little Tennessee River (NCDWQ
2002) lists 149 streams or stream reaches within the Little Tennessee River major drainage
area. Of the l49 named streams and reaches within this drainage area, 48 are Class C, 59 are
Class C Tr, 3 are Class B, and the remaining 39 are WS-N waters. Some of the WS-N
waters are additionally classified as WS-IV CA, WS-IV Tr, WS-IV Tr CA, or WS-IV B CA
waters. Specifics for all these tributaries are listed in Appendix B. All streams within the
project study area of the Little Tennessee River are fully supporting their designated uses
(NCDWQ 2002).
3.6.1.2 Nantahala Rver Major Drainage Area
The Nantahala River drains a small region of the southeastern portion of the project study
area. The river begins in Macon Counry, North Carolina, flows in a northeasterly direction,
and empties into the Little Tennessee River at Fontana Lake. Backwaters of Fontana Lake
extend beyond the project study area. Four named streams drain the area adjacent to the
Nantahala River ann of Fontana Lake in the project study area. They include Jake Branch,
Siles Branch, Long Branch, and Pump Branch. (Long Branch is a tributary of Siles Branch.)
These four streams are all Class C waters, and the Nantahala River is Class B Tr (NCDWQ
2002). Specifics for all these tributaries are listed in Appendix B. All streams within the
Nantahala River drainage area within the project study area are fully supporting their
designated use.
3.6.1.3 Tucka�gee f3ver Major Drainage Area
The Tuckasegee River drains the eastern and northeastern portions of the project study area.
The Tuckasegee River runs through Bryson City and empties into the Little Tennessee River
at Fontana Lake. The major tributaries of this river in the study area include Noland, Forney,
Lands, and Deep creeks. (NCDWQ 2002) lists 51 named, perennial streams within the study
area portion of the Tuckasegee River drainage area. Of these 51 streams and reaches, 24 are
Class C, 22 are Class C Tr, two are Class B, one is Class B Tr, one is Class C Tr HQW, and
one is WS-I HQW. The two stream reaches, Jenkins Branch and Lands Creek, are designated
High Quality Waters (HQW) from the source of each stream to the Bryson City Water
Supply Intake. Specifics for all these tributaries are listed in Appendix B. All streams within
.,
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
the project study area of the Tuckasegee River drainage area are fully supporting their
designated use (NCDWQ 2002).
3.6.1.4 Fontana Lake
The TVA impounded the Little Tennessee River to form Fontana Lake in 1944. The lake is
used for generating hydroelectric power and also provides flood control to the river. The lake
extends for 29 miles (24 km) along the southern boundary of GSMNP and has a perimeter of
approximately 240 miles (386 km). Although the mean depth of the lake is approximately
135 feet (4l m), it may reach a maximum depth of 440 feet (134 m). More than 1,570 square
miles (4,066.3 km�) of mountainous terrain drain into the lake (TVA no date).
The lake is separated into numerous segments for its best use classification. Various
segments of the lake are suitable for water supply, primary recreation, and secondary
recreation uses and may also be classified as trout waters. The classes assigned to the
segments of the lake include WS-IV Tr CA, WS-IV B CA, B, and C. Specific descriptions of
the lake classifications are listed in Table 21. Each section of the lake is fully supporting its
designated uses.
Table 21
Fontana Lake qassification of Designated Use and NCDWQ Stream Index Number,
Graham and 9wain Counties, North Carolina
�:�Tii1►Fi"id-a
Nantahala I�ver Arm of
Fontana Lake, Little
Tennessee Fdver below
elevation 1,708 msl
Little Tennessee f�ver
(Fontana Lake below
elevation 1,708 msl)
Tudcasegee Rlver Arm of
Fontana Lake, Little
Tennes9ee I�ver, below
elevation 1,708 m�
Tudcasegee Rlver Arm of
Fontana I�ke, Little
Tennessee F�ver, below
elevation 1,708 msl
Descxiption qassification
6�tire Arm
From Nantahala F3ver arm
of Fontana Lake to the
upstream sde of mouth of
9ioal &anch
That portion of the
Tudcasegee f�ver arm of
Fontana Lake above the
upstream side of the mouth
of Noland Creek
That portion of the
Tudcasegee F�ver arm of
Fontana Lake below the
upstream side of the mouth
of Noland Creek
B Tr
�
C
C
Basin
Little Tennessee
Little Tenn2ssc,'@
Little Tennessee
Little Tenn2ss�.'e
Stream Index #
2-(56)
2-(66)
2-(78)
2-90
97
Table 21 (Continued)
Fontana Lake qassification of Designated Use and NCDWQ Stream Index Number,
Graham and 9wain Counties, North Carolina
Stream Name Descxiption
Little Tennessee f�ver From the upstream sde of
(Fontana Lake below 9�oal Branch to Fontana
elevation 1,708 msl) Dam
Hazel Creek Arm of Fontana 6�tire arm
Lake, Little Tennessee f�ver,
below elevation 1,708 msl
Eagle Creek Arm of Fontana Entire arm
Lake, Little Tennessee Fdver,
below elevation 1,708 msl
Little Tennessee f�ver From Fontana Dame to
(Cheoah Lake, Calderwood North Carolina-Tennes�ee
Lake) State Line
Source: NCDWQ, 2002
3.6.2 Wild and �cenicfavers
Classification
WSIV, B CA
WS�IV; Tr CA
WS�IV Tr, CA
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Basin Stream Index #
Little Tennessee 2-(140.5)
Little Tennessee 2-(145)
Little Tennessee 2-(158)
C Tr Little Tennessee 2-(167)
National wild and scenic rivers (WSR) are designated by 16 USC 1271-1287. Selected water
bodies possess outstanding remarkable scenic, recreational, geological, fish and wildlife,
historic, cultural, or other similar values, and shall be preserved in free-flowing conditions.
There are no WSR designations within the project study area (NPS 2003b).
The Nationwide Rivers Inventory (NRI) is a register of river segments that potentially qualify
as national wild, scenic, ar recreational rivers areas under Section 5(d) of the National Wild
and Scenic Rivers Act (NPS 2001 a). Eligibility requirements consist of an examination of
the river's hydrology and an inventory of its natural, cultural, and recreational resources. A
set criteria of outstanding remarkable values (ORVs) are used to determine a river's
eligibility. Portions of two stream segments within the project study area are listed on the NRI
(Table 22). These segments are depicted on Figure 13.
.;
E�cisting Conditions
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Table 22
Stream Segments on the National Ibvers Inventory Within the Project Study Area
I�ver
Nantahala
f�ver
Length Year
Reach �m�� Listed/
Updated
Lake Fontana to 18 1982/
Nantahala Lake 1993
Tudcasegee f�Vl, Bryson City, 38 1982
f�ver to F�lVI 53 Lake
Cedar Cliff
Impoundment
F�VI —I�ver Mile
ORYs Descxiption
S R G, Nantahala Gorge is most extensve
W formation in southwestern North
Carolina of limestone and Murphy
marble. Number of rare or endemic
plants. Whitewater boating, fishing,
and viewing scenery.
S, R G, Soenic, natural stream that flows
F, W, H, through ancestral home of inembers
C of the Cherokee Nation; sgnificant
potential for rea-eational activities.
OFZ�/s S��cenery; F�F�a-eation; GGeology; W-Wildlife; F Fsh; H-History; GCultural
Source: NP52001b
3.6.3 Water Quality
3.6.3.1 Overview
The Lower Little Tennessee River subbasin, including the project study area, contains some
of the most pristine area and some of the cleanest water in North Carolina (NCDWQ 1997).
The portion of the basin surrounding Fontana Lake also contains some of the most famous
trout streams in the state, including Hazel, Forney, Deep, and Noland creeks (NCDWQ
1997). There are several existing factors that could potentially degrade water quality in the
project study area. GSMNP, including the project study area, receives high total atmospheric
deposition of sulfur and nitrogen. In addition, there are large areas of shallow, poorly
buffered soil. Over time, this acidic rainfall and poorly buffered soil could eventually lead to
increased acidity of the waters, including Fontana Lake, within the project study area (Flum
and Nodvin 1995).
Streams in the Lower Little Tennessee River subbasin were characterized by NCDWQ
(1997) as slightly acidic pH, low in nutrient concentrations, and low conductivity. All of
these conditions indicate good water quality. The good water quality is likely the result of a
dominantly forested watershed. More than 89 percent of the land in the basin is forested, and
less than 5 percent falls into the urban/developed category (NCDWQ 2002).
Streams in undeveloped areas generally exhibit excellent water quality (NCDWQ 2002).
Streams in developed areas often have elevated turbidity after storms due to increased
..
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
erosion. NCDWQ (1997) found that most major streams become turbid after rain evenis, and
increased sediment inputs have caused habitat degradation and stress to aquatic organisms.
Erosion is an example of nonpoint source pollution.
Point source dischargers throughout North Carolina are regulated through the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination Shystem (NPDES) program. Dischargers are required by
law to register for a permit. According to NCDWQ (2002), there are three minor dischargers
within the project study area. The three dischargers are the Bryson City Wastewater
Treatment Plant (WWTP), the TVA — Fontana Hydro Plant, and the Peppertree Fontana
Village WWTP (Table 23). The permit issued for the Bryson Ciry WWTP requires
monitoring of the whole effluent toxicity. The plant has no history of noncompliance
(NCDWQ 2002). Reports were not available for Fontana Hydro Plant and Peppertree
Fontana Village.
Table 23
National Pollutant Discharge �imination System Permit Holders
Within the Proje�t Study Area
Permit
Number Faality Type, qass Receiving Stream
NC0026557
NC0027341
NC0023086
Bryson City WWTP
Fontana Hydro Rant
F�ppertree Fontana
Village
Source: NCDWQ 2002
Muniapal, Minor Tuckasegee f�ver
Industrial FYocess & Little Tennessee F3ver
Commeraal, Minor (Cheoah Lake)
Industrial FYocess & Little Tennessee f�ver
Commeraal, Minor (Cheoah Lake)
NCDWQ sampled Fontana Lake in 1981, 1982, 1987, and 1994. Results from all four
sampling events revealed a North Carolina Trophic State Index (NCTS� scare indicative of
oligotrophic conditions (NCDWQ ] 997). The NCTSI is computed using the following
measured parameters: total phosphorus, total organic nitrogen, secchi depth, and chlorophyll-
a. As a result, lakes are classified as oligotrophic, mesothropic, eutrophic, or hypereutrophic.
Oligotrophic conditions characterize a lake with low biological productivity as a result of
very low concentrations of available nutrients in the water, whereas eutrophic conditions
characterize high biological activity as a result of high nutrient availability. Lakes with
oligotrophic conditions are rypically very clear and have good water quality. Oligotrophic
lalces in North Carolina are generally found in the mountain region or in undisturbed (natural)
watersheds.
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E�cisting Conditions
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TVA monitored Fontana Lake annually from 1993 until 1996 and biennially thereafter. In
2000, Fontana Lake rated fair. This monitaring indicated a decrease in dissolved o�ygen
levels in the bottom waters of the lalce. In addition, the monitoring has shown a gradual
increase in chlorophyll levels in the middle of the lake. This may be an early sign of nutrient
enrichment. There was no change in the fair rating for fish communities in 2000 from
previous years, and there were no fish consumption advisories. Low levels of pesticides were
found in sediment samples in the Tuckasegee River arm of Fontana Lake. However, little to
no pesticides were found in the sediments in the Little Tennessee River at and near the dam
of Fontana Lake. Fecal coliform bacteria levels were below North Carolina limits for safe
water contact; therefore, there were no advisories against swimming in Fontana Lake in 2000
(TVA 2003).
A 1978 study of sediments in Fontana Lake found manganese, copper, and zinc in
concentrations similar to areas receiving industrial pollution (Abernathy et al. 1984). Higher
copper concentrations were found in Hazel and Eagle creeks than any other sampling
locations. These concentrations were attributed to former copper mines in the drainage
basins of those streams. High levels of manganese and zinc were attributed to geologic
sources. Chemical analysis of Anakeesta rock formations showed relatively high
concentrations of the same metals found in the sediments. (These rocks have been
determined not to be Anakeesta rock, but a similar acid-producing rock. More detailed
geology infonnation is available in Section 3.5.) Currently, the metal accumulations in the
sediment do not pose a risk; however, an increase in the acidity of the lake water would
increase the biological risk of the heavy metals in the sediment.
In general, the water quality of Fontana Lake is good; however, the lake should be monitored
regularly for changes as development in the watershed continues. Based on data collected by
TVA, Fontana Lake is starting to exhibit degraded water quality with increased chlorophyll-a
levels and decreased oxygen levels.
3.6.3.2 Benthic Evaluation
Benthic macroinvertebrate monitoring provides a reliable tool far determining water quality
conditions over several years. Benthic macroinvertebrates are sensitive to subtle changes in
water quality and have a short life cycle, ranging from six months to over one year. The
benthic macroinvertebrates that are most often tracked for water quality determinations are
the pollutant intolerant Orders of Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and
Trichoptera (caddisflies), collectively referred to as EPTs. The NCDWQ has developed a
biotic index (NCB� and in conjunction with taxa richness classifies the water quality of each
stream as Excellent, Good, Good-Fair, Fair, and Poor. Tbe NCBI was developed by
NCDWQ specifically for North Carolina and is based on the abundance and tolerance value
of a species. The lower the NCBI the higher the stream water quality (NCDWQ 200] ).
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E�cisting Conditions
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NCDWQ has seven benthic macroinvertebrate monitaring stations within the project study
area. The monitoring stations are located, in order from upstream to downstream, at Deep
Creek near SR 1340, Noland Creek near its mouth with Fontana Lake, Forney Creek near its
mouth with Fontana Lake, Bear Creek near its mouth with Fontana Lake, Panther Creek near
SR 1233, Stecoah Creek near SR 1237, and Hazel Creelc near its mouth with Fontana Lake.
Sampling was conducted in 1999, which resulted in an Excellent bioclassification at all seven
stations (NCDWQ 2002). An older sampling study from 1994 generated a bioclassification
of Good for the Stecoah Creek monitoring station and Excellent for the otber six stations
(NCDWQ 1997). T'he NCDWQ attributes the bioclassification change of Stecoah Creek to a
change in the flow regime of the stream rather than to a true improvement in water quality of
the stream. The 1994 sampling was performed during a period of high flow, and the l 999
sampling was performed under low-flow conditions. High-flow conditions tend to scour
some of the more intolerant taxa from the streambeds and produce a lower water quality
rating. Based on the benthic macroinvertebrate data, water quality throughout the basin
appears to be stable.
Two sampling sites are located on Deep Creek, near SR 1340, which is within the project
study area, and above the campground, which is upstream of the project study area within
GSMNP. Tbe second Deep Creek site is in a part of the stream that receives heavy
recreational use in the summer. Both sites had similar EPT taxa richness scores in 1994 (47
and 50) and 1999 (47 and 45); however, the number of less tolerant species declined at the
downstream site, indicating slightly degraded conditions (NCDWQ 1997; 2000; 2002). Since
there were few differences in water quality between the two sites, the decline in EPT species
could be the result of habitat differences between the two sites, including a more embedded
substrate, mare breaks in the riparian buffer, fewer pools, and greater periphyton growths at
the downstream site. However, both sites on Deep Creek are classified as having Excellent
water quality.
Noland Creek's watershed is located within GSNINP and is characterized by high quality
riparian and in-stream habitat. The 1999 sampling study was the first study at this site near
Fontana Lake. An EPT taxa richness of 40 classifies the stream with Excellent water quality
(NCDWQ 2000; 2002).
Like Noland Creek, Fomey Creek is also located within GSMNP and is characterized by
good habitat and water quality. Sampling in 1994 and 1999 resulted in identical EPT values
(46) and nearly identical taxa richness scores (79 and 81, respectively). The NCBI scores are
the best values recorded in the state (NCDWQ 1997; 2000; 2002).
Bear Creek, a tributary to Forney Creek, is the third stream sampled that is situated within
GSMNP. Like Noland and Forney creeks, the drainage area that feeds this stream is located
102
E�cisting Conditions
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in an undisturbed, forested portion of the park. Sampling was conducted only in 1994. The
rocky substrate and clear water in Bear Creek support high EPT taxa richness (44) and overall
taxa richness of 71. The taxa represented in the creek are dominated by highly intolerant
species (NCDWQ 1997).
Hazel Creek watershed is located entirely within GSMNP. Due to its relatively undisturbed
setting, high quality habitats are found in Hazel Creek. The total and EPT taxa richness
scores were 96 and 47 in ] 994 and 106 and 56 in 1999 (NCDWQ 1997; 2000; 2002). Nine
new EPT taxa were collected in 1999 that were not observed in the 1994 study. Again, the
increase in taxa richness from l 994 to 1999 is attributed to a difference in flow regime.
Hazel Creek was classified as Excellent in both sampling years.
Sampling from Panther Creek, on the south side of Fontana Lake at SR 1233, produced
slightly lower EPT taxa richness than above. The EPT taxa richnesses were 37 and 39 in
1994 and 1999, respectively. The stream is still classified as Excellent water quality;
however, the stream was noted to exhibit many of the habitat degradation issues consistent
with residential and agricultural development in the southern portion of the basin (NCDWQ
1997; 2000; 2002).
Stecoah Creek is also situated in a developed area of the southern portion of tbe project study
area. The bioclassification was rated Good in 1994 and EXCellent in 1999 (NCDWQ ] 997;
2000; 2002). The change was based on a significant increase in the EPT taxa richness (29
and 39, respectively). Some of the less tolerant species that were abundant in the 1999
sampling were rare or absent in the 1994 collections. High-flow conditions in 1994 were
indicated as the reason for the taxa fluciiations. The NCDWQ expects the bioclassification of
Stecoah Creek to fluctuate between Good and Excellent as flow conditions fluctuate.
The NCDWQ lists the primary water quality problem in the basin as nonpoint source runoff
due to development along the various streams in the basin (NCDWQ 2000). The runoff
contributes to elevated inputs of nutrients and/or sediment. Residential and agricultural
development is most prevalent along stream corridars where inadequate riparian buffers are
being left intact (NCDWQ 2000). Sediment and nutrients are moving into the streams at
increasing rates. The documented changes in the affected streams do not indicate a
degradation of the water qualiry, but do indicate a degradation of the stream habitat. Habitat
degradation in the basin includes few pools, relatively uniform riffles and runs, an embedded
substrate, elevated conductivity, sediment deposition, riparian zone with frequent breaks or
narrow width, bank erosion, and abundant periphyton. Benthic macroinvertebrates are more
sensitive to changes in water quality than to changes in habitat. The habitat degradation is
expected to have a greater effect on the fish in the streams than on the benthic
macroinvertebrates, although there are no recent data to verify this hypothesis (NCDWQ
2000).
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E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Negative effects of the habitat degradation on benthic macroinvertebrate species richness are
not sufficient to lower the bioclassification of the stream. Undisturbed streams are
characterized by highly intolerant species and a very low biotic index score. Disturbed
streams have fewer individuals of the highly intolerant species, but the resulting biotic index
score is still within the Excellent bioclassification range. Habitat degradation effects may not
be reflected in the bioclassification for this reason.
3.6.3.3 Great 9noky Mountains National Park �`udies
3.63.3.1 Hazel Creek Watershed
Data obtained from GSMNP include specific water quality data for Hazel Creek watershed
(Robinson et al. 2003). Within the project study area, there are eight monitoring sites on
Hazel Creek. Data were collected quarterly between March 1994 and November 2002.
Table 22 summarizes key parameters to characterize the water quality of the watershed. Sites
are listed in order from upstream to downstream, with site 479 collected at the mouth of
Hazel Creek and Lake Fontana. Sugar Fark is a tributary to Hazel Creek whose confluence
with Hazel Creek is located upstream of site 311.
Stream pH is an overall indicator of the ability of the streatn to sustain aquatic life. Baker et
al. (1996) propose that streams with pH greater than 6.5 have no adverse biological effects;
pH between 6.5 and 6.0 has loss of sensitive benthic invertebrates; pH between 6.0 and 5.5
has loss of acid-sensitive fish; pH between 5.5 and 5.0 has loss of most fish and EPT species;
and pH less than 5.0 has loss of all fish species. In the study, median pH values were slightly
below or equal to 6.5, although minimum values were always greater than 6.0. Biological
sampling has shown no decline in macroinvertebrate species. Therefore, the pH of streams
within the project study area does not appear to be degraded. Acid-neutralizing capacity
(ANC), related to pH, is a measure of the ability of a stream to neutralize a strong acid. ANC
greater than 50 microequivalent per liter (µeq/L) are within the acceptable range (Rounds and
Wilde 2001). All streams within the Hazel Creek watershed portion of the project study area
are within the acceptable range.
Atmospheric deposition is the main source of nitrate and sulfate in surface waters within
GSMNP. Generally, nitrate concentrations are very low on Sugar Fork Creek and slightly
higher on Hazel Creek (Table 24). In general, median nitrate concentrations increase with
elevation. Robinson et al. (2002) found similar results on a park-wide analysis of data.
Sulfate concentrations were higher on Sugar Fork Creek compared to Hazel Creek. Little
Fork, a tributary to Sugar Fork Creek, had median sulfate concentrations twice as high as any
other site. This high concentration may be due to undisturbed parent rock material or
disturbed waste rock from mines. These average values are indicative of high water quality
within Hazel Creek and its watershed.
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E�cisting Conditions
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Cations, calcium, and �nagnesium are dissolved in water and are important to vegetation and
aquatic species. Cations in the terrestrial ecosystem provide a buffering effect to acidic
atmospheric deposition. Leaching of calcium and magnesium from the watershed may result
in higher nitrate and sulfate concentrations (within the watershed and stream) and
consequently lower stream pH. Median concentrations of botb calcium and magnesium were
higher on Sugar Fark Creek compared to Hazel Creek (Table 24). Similar studies on Noland
Creek from 1991 to 1996 suggest that the export of calcium concentrations is increasing over
time (Flum et al. 1997). However, there are not enough data available in the Hazel Creek
watershed to determine if a similar trend exists (Robinson, pers. comm. 2003).
Table 24
�mmary of Hazel Creek Water Quality Data, Sampling from 1994-2002
Site ID
Sugar Fork Creek
(482) Above Little Fork
481 Little Fork
(483) Above Haw Gap Creek
(480) Campste 84
Hazel Creek
(484) Above Bone Valley Creek
(310) Bone Valley Creek
(311) Below �gar Fork Creek
(479) Campste 86
pH
6.49
6.47
6.51
6.51
6.44
6.49
6.48
6.46
ANC NO; SO,2
eq/ L leq/ L eq/ L
81.16 2.41 20.96
83.04 0.00 52.29
84.24 0.00 29.20
79.73 1.86 21.36
53.11 6.46 16.19
71.41 4.05 20.82
63.54 4.59 17.22
C:��'�c��:�Q��
�* M g*
eq/ L leq/ L
45.45 34.98
53.93 44.69
47.23 33.25
45.95 27.00
34.10 18.44
4420 25.35
38.50 20.82
41.15 21.89
��-ampling from May 2000 to November 2002.
NO; = Nitrate 9�,z = 3dfate Ca = Calaum Mg = Magnesium
(µeq/L) = microequivalent per liter
Source: F3�bin5on et al. 2003
3.633.2 Effects of Acid Deposition
The NPS has conducted studies of the streams within GSMNP to monitar the potential
impacts from acidic atmospheric deposition (NCDWQ 2000; Flum et al. ] 997; Robinson et
al. 2002; Robinson et al. 2003). The studies include the collection of over 2,500 pH
measurements from 350 streams in the park. Low pH values were found in several tributaries
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E�cisting Conditions
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of Fontana Lake, including Noland, Forney, and Eagle creeks (NCDWQ 2000). The
tributaries identified have headwaters in old growth, undisturbed forests at elevations above
4,000 feet (1,219 meters) above msl. Years of acid rain and other acid precipitation have
saturated the forest system with nitrogen. The system's ability to neutralize the resulting
acidity is depleted, and high concentrations of aqueous nitrate result and are carried into the
streams.
Streams within GSMNP have elevated levels of nitrate throughout the year. Streams that do
not receive acid rain have normal stream concentrations ranging from 1 to 3 µeq/L (Flum et
al. 1997). Flum et al. (1997) have shown that nitrate concentrations increase with elevation
within GSMNP. Areas around Clingman's Dome appear to have high enough concentrations
to be close to nitrogen saturation.
The Noland Divide Watershed (NDW) was set up as a small watershed study to examine the
long-term relationship between deposition and stream water quality (Flum et al. ] 997).
Sampling stations included an atmospheric deposition collector at 5,709 feet (1,740 meters)
above msl, a soil station, and a stream gauging station. Results from 1991 to 1996 indicate
high rates of nitrogen and sulfur deposition, 893 and 2,100 equivalent per hectare per year
(eq/ha/yr), respectively, compared to other areas in the United States that also receive acid
rain. Two streams within the watershed were monitored for water quality. In the study area,
nitrate was the predominant acid anion in these streams (Nodvin et al. ] 995). Generally,
nitrogen is limiting in forested ecosystems and all available nitrogen is consumed by
biological uptake. This is not the case at NDW; instream nitrate concentrations ranged from
40 to 80 µeq/L with seasonal variation of higher concentrations in the winter. The
concentration of sulfur ranged between 20 and 75 µeq/L, also with seasonal variation of
higher concentrations in the winter. These sulfur concentrations are low compared to other
streams in the northeastern United States. These results suggest that sulfur adsorption is high
whereas nitrogen adsorption is low.
The amount of nitrogen entering the watershed through atmospheric deposition equals the
amount of nitrogen exiting the watershed in the streams. This suggests that the NDW is near
the saturation point. It is unknown if most of tbe nitrogen in the streams is from precipitation
moving rapidly through the watershed with little interaction within the watershed or how
much is the result of high nitrogen cycling after vegetation interaction. Vegetation uptake
influences the amount of nitrogen leaching to streams. A young forest will uptake more
nitrogen than an older forest. Therefore, as a forest ages nitrate leaching will increase.
Additionally, nitrate leaching will be greater in the dormant season.
The major concern for water quality in the NDW is the low level of base cations such as
calcium. Low concentration of cations means that anions (i.e., nitrate) will be balanced by
hydrogen ions or potentially toxic aluminum ions. The effects of nitrate and sulfate reaching
106
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
the streams are sufficiently high enough to create chronically low pH and low ANC.
Leaching rates are thus the key to understanding the loss of base cations, soil acidification,
and ultimately stream acidification in GSMNP (Flum et al. 1997).
Water quality sampling throughout GSMNP indicates that water quality in NDW is typical of
water qualiry at high elevations throughout the park. Although stream acidification is
occurring at high elevations, water quality is generally not impacted below approximately
3,000 feet (914 meters) above msl (Flum et al. 1997). The main concern is that the process of
nitrogen saturation and subsequent stream acidity increases at higher elevations will
eventually impact lower elevation streams and lakes.
3.6.333 Effects of Historical Mining Operations
The USGS has conducted studies of the effects of historical mining operations on the
groundwater and surface waters in the area surrounding the mines (Seal et al. 1997). The two
historical mines that were researched and studied are the Fontana Mine, located near the
headwaters of Eagle Creek, and the Hazel Creek Mine, located near the headwaters of Hazel
Creek. Commodities produced from these mines include copper, zinc, lead, silver, and gold.
Both mines are classified as massive sulfide deposits, being more than 50 percent dominated
by heavy sulfide minerals (Seal et al. ] 997). The sulfide minerals common to the mine areas
include pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena. The sulfide deposits are
situated between thick sequences of inetamorphosed sedimentary or volcanic rocks. The
sulfide minerals are easily oxidized or decomposed to sulfuric acid enriched with heavy
metals, but the surrounding rock formations are limited in their capability to neutralize the
acid. By this mechanism, water quality can be adversely affected by rock formations of this
rype.
The mineral deposits at the mines are highly weathered, with the primary sulfide ore being
oxidized, decomposed, and overlain by an intermediate zone of secondary enrichment that is
situated between the unweathered sulfide ore and the reddish-brown cap of iron-oxide
material (Seal et al. 1997). The intermediate zone is formed when the sulfide minerals at the
surface are weathered and react with groundwater; the copper that is released leaches
downward through the profile to form new copper minerals. The zone typically contains very
high-grade ores. Water table and climatic variability over time cause more of the primary ore
to be affected by the intermediate zone. The iron-oxide cap also contains the remnants of
weathered sulfides.
Current threats to water qualiry in the streams associated with and surrounding the mines
include weathering of unmined primary sulfide ore, unmined ore from the intermediate zone,
and pyretic county rocks (Seal et al. 1997). Water samples were collected from surface
waters within the mines, streams tbat flow past the mines, and streams in watersheds other
107
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
than those affected by the historical mining operations. T'he samples were analyzed to
determine the effects of the exposed rocks and minerals on the quality of the waters flowing
through the mines, the waters into which the minerals may be carried through surface or
subsurface flow, and to compare the effects to ihose associated with waters flowing through
or over undisturbed mineral deposits of similar composition.
Results from the water sampling showed a wide range of pH values and concentrations of
dissolved metals and other constituents. Tbe most extreme values were found in the samples
taken from the waters associated with the Fontana Mine, where the lowest pH value was
found to be 2.4 (Seal et al. 1997). Maximum values for all dissolved constituents investigated
were found to be well above regulatory standards (Table 25).
Samples taken from the Hazel Creek Mine and nearby streams indicated a minimum pH of
3.7 and lower maximum values for dissolved constituent concentrations than those associated
with Fontana Mine waters. Lead is the one metal for which the maximum concentration
found in the waters associated with Hazel Creek Mine is greater than that of the Fontana
Mine. Lead solubiliry may be related to the solubility of the lead-sulfate mineral, anglesite.
Lower sulfate concentrations are associated with higher lead concentrations, and the lowest
sulfate concentration found in the Fontana Mine waters is greater than the highest sulfate
concentration found in the Hazel Creek Mine waters. It is also important to note that all mine
waters exceeded aluminum toxicity limits for freshwater fish, and mine effluent waters
exceeded the toxicity limits of zinc and lead in all samples and aluminum in some samples
(Seal et al. 1997).
Results from sampling the waters near the mines reveal variability in the water quality both
upstream and downstream of the mine sites. The range of pH values is 5.5 to 7.8, which is
slightly more basic than the range found for streams that drain areas underlain by the
Anakeesta and Copper Hill formations (4.0 to 7.0 pH range) (Seal et al. 1997). With the
exceptions of iron and aluminum, the dissolved constituent concentrations in these streams,
waters near the mines, were lower than those in the mine waters and higher than those in the
waters situated away from known mining activity. In the cases of iron and aluminum, the
waters away from the mines contain higher concentrations than do the waters near the mines.
It is presumed that areas of natural "acid-rock drainage" within tbe Anakeesta formation
away from the mines are the cause of the elevated levels of dissolved iron and aluminum in
these waters (Seal et al. ] 997).
Sampling was also performed in portions of Fontana Lake in order to determine the effects of
the mining activities on the water quality of the lake. The samples taken from within 3
meters of the mouth of the stream that flows past Fontana Mine are indistinguishable from the
samples taken from the center of the lake and from the bottom of the dam (Seal et al. 1997).
From these data, it is concluded that the historic mining activiry in the Fontana Lake
108
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
watershed area currently negatively impacts the water quality of nearby surface waters;
however, the mining activity is not currently having a negative impact on the waters of the
lake. Natural dilution of the stream waters as they flow downstream toward the lake appears
to be an effective mitigation process (Seal et al. 1997). If a build or partial-build alternative is
selected as the preferred alternative in the EIS process, mining surveys will be conducted if
applicable.
Table 25
Comparison of Seleded Water Quality Parameters for Fontana and Hazel Creek M ines
Parameter
pH
Dissolved O�rygen (mg/L)
Alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3)
9�, (mg/L)
Hardness (mg/L CaCO3)
Fontana M ine Hazel Creek M ine
High
3.2
12.0
0.0
11000.0
988.0
L�ow
2.4
8.0
0.0
270.0
94.2
High
6.4
8.0
3.0
150.0
76.0
L�ow
3.7
6.0
0.0
19.0
8.3
Acute
Toxiaty'
Fe (ug/L) 2600000.0 9.7 7800.0 0.1
AI (µ g/L) 140000.0 8300.0 3300.0 <0.01
Cu (µg/L) 290000.0 11000.0 16000.0 <0.5 0.97
7� (� g/L) 430000.0 7500.0 11000.0 960.0 8.73
Cd (µg/L) 840.0 9.2 30.0 <0.02 0.137
Fb (µ g/L) 380.0 33.0 620.0 <0.05 2.11
Total Base Metals (mg/L) 722.4 18.7 27.6 1.7
' Criterion Ma�dmum Concentrations were calculated based on the average hardness (4.8 g/L CaCO3) of
the streams away from areas of past mining.
µg/L micrograms per liter mg/L milligrams per liter
CaCo3 Calate 9�4 �Ifate
Fe Iron AI Aluminum
Cu Copper Zn Znc
Cd Cadmium W Lead
Source: Seal et al. 1997
109
E�cisting Conditions
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3.6.4 Sole Souroe Aquifiers
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) protects waters that are
designated as a sole source aquifer. The designation is given to waters that are the only or
one of few sources of drinking water for an area. If sole source aquifer waters are
contaminated, use of an alternative source of drinking water would be extremely expensive.
In order to ensure protection of these waters, any proposed project within a designated area
receiving federal funding must be reviewed by USEPA. No sole source aquifer areas are
designated within the project study area (USEPA 2003).
3.6.5 Wellhead Protection Program
The USEPA developed the Wellhead Protection Program (WHPP) as part of the 1986
amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act. The WHPP requires each state to develop a
program to protect wellhead areas from contaminants that may present a health risk to the
persons drinking the water. North Carolina's WHPP provides support to communities within
the state that choose to develop and implement a communiry-wide WHPP. The list of
participating communities with an approved wellhead protection plan changes frequently.
Currently, no wellhead protection plans have been approved for any communiry within the
project study area (NCDENR 2003).
3.6.6 Groundwater Recharge Areas
Groundwater recharge occurs when water moving into the groundwater system arrives at the
top of the saturated zone. The North Carolina Division of Environmental Management
calculates the total recharge areas by subtracting the total discharge area from the total land
area. Less than 0.03 percent or 38.5 acres (15.6 ha) of the project shidy area is mapped as a
discharge area (Heath 1994).
Therefore, almost the entire project
study area is considered a recharge area.
Climate, vegetation, land use, and soil
characteristics are factors that affect the
rate of recharge. The recharge rate for
most of the Blue Ridge physiographic
region, including the project study area,
is estimated as 600,000 gpd/square mile
(5,883 cmd/km�) (Heath 1994).
Estimates of recharge on such a
regional scale are based on the
assumptions of uniform conditions in
StudyArea Wetland
110
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
the aquifer and in the drainage basin. Therefore, refinement of characteristics specific to the
project study area may result in a different estimated groundwater recharge rate (Daniel and
Dahlen 2002).
3.7 Wetlands
This section provides information on jurisdictional waters, both as wetlands and surface
waters, and the regulations governing activities in these areas.
"Waters of the United States" or jurisdictional waters are defined in the Clean Water Act
(CWA) as water bodies including lakes, rivers and streams, and wetlands. Wetlands for the
purposes of the CWA, are those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface water or
groundwater at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and under normal
circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated
soil conditions (33 CFR 328.3). A second definition of wetlands, developed by the United
States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), views wetlands from a more ecological
standpoint. This classification system is used for mapping wetlands for the National
Wetlands Inventory (NWI) Project. Wetlands must have one or more of the following three
attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; (2) the
substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; ar(3) the substrate is nonsoil and is
saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season of
each year (Cowardin et al. 1979). Finally wetlands and surface waters may be viewed from a
very strict standpoint such as navigable waters or as the shoreline of the TVA reservoirs, the
Tennessee River, and its tributaries. All of these definitions or classifications, along with
their corresponding regulations or guidelines, are applicable in the project study area.
3.7.1 Regulatory Requirements
Actions that affect wetlands and surface waters are guided and regulated by numerous federal
laws and orders including EO ]1990, the Clean Water Act, the Rivers and Harbor Act, and
the TVA Act. These laws and arders are described below along with any associated
management plans and state regulations.
Executive Order 11990 establishes the "Protection of Wetlands" for federal agencies in arder
to "...a�oid to the extent possible the ]ong and short term adverse impacts associated with the
destruction or modification of wetlands and to avoid the direct or indirect support of new
construction in wetlands wberever there is a practicable alternative." The NPS policies,
requirements, and standards for implementing EO 11990 are established in Director's Order
(DO) #77-1. The responsibilities and procedures described in EO 11990 and the DO #77-1
are detailed in the Procedure Manual #77-1. In a manner consistent with EO 11990, the NPS
has adopted a goal of "no net loss of wetlands" and was directed to conduct park-wide
111
E�cisting Conditions
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wetland inventories. The USFWS's classification system by Cowardin et al. was adopted by
the NPS for defining, classifying, and inventorying wetlands. The USFS Manual Section
2527 (Floodplain Management and Wetlands Protection) in compliance with EO 11990,
establishes guidelines to minimize destruction, loss, and degradation of wetlands and
preserves/restores the functions of wetlands.
The CWA, passed into legislation in October of 1972, requires regulation of discharges into
"Waters of the United States." The objective of the CWA is to maintain and restore the
chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Waters of the United States. The USEPA
is the principal administrative agency of the CWA; however, the USACE has the
responsibility for implementation, permitting, and enforcement of provisions of the Act.
Specifically, Section 404 of the CWA authorizes the USACE to issue permits for the
discharge of dredged or fill material into the "Waters of the United States," including
wetlands. The USACE regulatory program is defined in 33 CFR 320-330. Before any
activities occur, applicable permits must be obtained and any compensatory mitigation must
be determined.
Under Section 401 of the CWA, a Section 401 General Water Quality Certification is also
required far any activity which may result in a discharge into "Waters of the United States" or
for which an issuance of a federal permit or license is issued. In North Carolina, the
NCDWQ is responsible for issuing a Water Quality Certification. They will certify that a
given project will not degrade waters of the State or otherwise violate state water quality
standards (15A NCAC 2B.0200). The USACE cannot issue a Section 404 permit until a
Section 40l certification is issued.
The CWA, under Section 402, also provides guidelines and limitations far effluent discharges
from point source discharges that are administered as the NPDES (] SA NCAC 02H).
NPDES permits in North Carolina are obtained from NCDWQ. A NPDES permit is required
for stormwater discharges into "Waters of the United States" associated with construction
activities. The NPDES permit requirements include the implementation of a comprehensive
stormwater management program, monitoring of the program, and annual reports to outline
the program's effectiveness and direction.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (33 USC 403) prohibits the creation of any obstruction
to the navigable capacity of any "Waters of the United States" without approval of the
USACE. Section 9 of this Act prohibits the construction of any bridge, dam, dike, or
causeway over or in navigable waterways of the United States without approval. Structures
authorized by state legislatures may be built if the affected navigable waters are totally within
one state, provided that the plan is approved by the USACE (33 USC 401). Section 10 of this
Act requires permits to be issued whenever Section 404 permits are issued for wetlands that
are defined as navigable. Under Section 10 of the Act, the building of any wharfs, piers,
112
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
jetties, and other structures is prohibited without approval, and excavation or fill within
navigable waters requires the approval of the USACE.
Section 26a of the TVA Act of 1933 (48 Stat. 58-59, 16 USC 831) requires that TVA
approval be obtained before any construction activities may be conducted that affect
navigation, flood control, ar public lands along the shoreline of tbe TVA reservoirs or in the
Tennessee River or its tributaries. Construction projects that require TVA approval include
bridges, culverts, and fill ar construction within the floodplain.
A determination of regulatory and permit applicabiliry cannot be made at this time due to the
lack of study alternatives. As alternatives are developed through the NEPA process, permit
applicabiliry will be reevaluated.
3.7.2 Mitigation
Depending on the alternatives developed for this project and the quantity of impacts, if any,
to "Waters of the United States" mitigation is likely to be required. T'he USACE has adopted,
through the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), a mitigation policy which embraces
the concepts of "no net loss of wetlands" and sequencing. The purpose of this policy is to
restore and maintain the chemical, biological, and physical integriry of "Waters of the United
States," specifically wetlands. Mitigation of wetland impacts has been defined by the CEQ
to include: avoidance of impacts, minimizing impacts, rectifying impacts, reducing impacts
over time, and compensating for impacts (40 CFR 1508.20). Each of these three aspects
(avoidance, minimization, and campensatory mitigation) must be considered in sequential
order.
Avoidance examines all appropriate and practicable possibilities of averting impacts to
"Waters of the United States." According to a l 990 Memorandum of Agreement between the
USEPA and the USACE, in determining "appropriate and practicable" measures to offset
unavoidable impacts, such measures should be appropriate to the scope and degree of those
impacts and practicable in tenns of cost, existing technology, and logistics in light of overall
pro�ect purposes.
Minimization includes the examination of "appropriate and practicable" steps to reduce
adverse impacts to "Waters of the United States." Imple��nentation of these steps will be
required through project modifications and permit conditions. Minimization typically focuses
on decreasing the footprint of the proposed project. Other methods may include enforcing
best management practices to control sedimentation during project construction, minimizing
"in-stream" activities, and use of responsible litter control practices.
113
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Compensatory mitigation is not normally considered until anticipated impacts to "Waters of
the United States" have been avoided and minimized to the maximum extent possible. It is
recognized that " no net loss of wetlands" functions and values may not be achieved in every
permit action. "Appropriate and practicable" compensatory mitigation is required for
unavoidable adverse impacts that remain after all "appropriate and practicable" minimization
has been required. Compensatory actions often include restoration, creation, and
enhancement of "Waters of the United States," specifically wetlands. Such action should be
undertaken in areas adjacent to or contiguous to the discharge site.
Final compensatory mitigation requirements of USACE permits will be commensurate with
the type and amount of impact associated with the permitted activity. Due to a lack of
alternatives for the proposed project, it is unknown if compensatory mitigation will be
required. NCDWQ may also require stream mitigation for its associated Section 401 Water
Quality Certification.
Executive Order 11990 addresses actions that should be taken for a proposed new
development ar other new activities, plans, ar programs that either are located in ar otherwise
have the potential for direct or indirect adverse impacts on wetlands. The NPS will employ a
sequence of avoiding adverse wetlands impacts to the extent practicable, minimizing impacts
that could not be avoided, and compensating for remaining unavoidable adverse impacts via
restoration of degraded wetlands. After avoidance and minimization of wetland impacts have
been applied, remaining wetland degradation or loss must be offset. Far the NPS,
compensation refers to restoring natural wetland function in degraded or former natural
wetland habitats of NPS lands. It does not refer to creating wetlands where they did not
previously exist. For the purpose of wetland compensation, wetland restoration proposals
must, at a minimum, provide one-to-one wetland function replacement and at a minimum of
one-to-one wetland acreage replacement (NPS 1998b).
3.7.3 Wetlandsin the Project 3udyArea
The existing acreage and classification of wetlands within the study area was determined
from digital USFWS NWI maps. These maps show the ]ocation, size, and rype of wetland
within defined geographical areas and are typically used for planning purposes only. NWI
maps attempt to show all types of wetlands, not just ones regulated by the USACE's three-
parameter method. These maps are not field verified and tend to omit drier type or forested
wetlands.
The descriptions of the existing wetlands are taken from the USFWS classification system for
wetlands and deepwater habitats (Cowardin et al. 1979). This classification hierarchy
describes wetland systems into three broad categories: Systems, Subsystems, and Classes.
These categories are based on various characteristics including, but not limited to,
114
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
topographic location, physiographic location, proximity to various water bodies, soil and
substrate composition, vegetation patterns, and flood frequency. Freshwater wetlands or
deepwater habitats are classified into three Systems: Riverine, Palustrine, and Lacustrine.
Riverine wetlands include all wetlands and deepwater habitats contained within a channel,
with the exception of wetlands dominated by persistent vegetation and habitats with salinity
greater than 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt). Palustrine wetlands include all non-tidal wetlands
dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergent plants, emergent mosses or lichens, and all
such wetlands that occur in tidal areas where salinity due to ocean derived salts is below 0.5
ppt. Lacustrine wetlands include wetlands and deepwater habitats that are situated in a
topographic depression or an impounded river. Wetlands in this classification lack trees,
shrubs, persistent emergent plants, emergent mosses or lichens, and occupy more than 20
acres (8 ha).
Digital NWI mapping indicates approximately 10,333 acres (4,182 ha) of wetlands are within
the project study area (Table 26). These wetlands are depicted on Figure 14.
Table 26
Area and Description of NWI Mapped Wetlandsand Deepwater Habitat
Within the Project Study Area
Wetland Area aa-es
qassification (hedares)
I:<1�1:?.
i::,•,tir_i
PBV11 C
PBVI 1 Ch
F8V11 Fh
1�01A
O
Ff01 B
P5S1 A
Desa-iption
60.7 (24.6) F�verine, upper perennial, unconsolidated bottom, permanently flooded
1.9 (0.8) Palustrine, emergent, persstent, temporarily flooded
0.2 (0.1) Palustrine, emergent, persstent, seasonally flooded
0.5 (0.2) Palustrine, emergent, persstent, seasonally flooded, impounded
1.0 (0.4) Palustrine, emergent, persstent, semipermanently flooded, impounded
4.1 (1.7) Palustrine, forested, broad leaved deciduous, temporarilyflooded
0.6 (0.3) Palus#rine, forested, broad leaved deciduous, saturated
2.5 (1.0) Palustrine, scxub shrub, broad leaved deciduous, temporarilyflooded
P5S1 Ah 3.8 (1.5)
P5S1 Fx 2.0 (0.8)
FUBHh 17.2 (6.9)
F1161-bc 1.1 (0.4)
R19Ch 1.0 (0.4)
Palustrine, scrub shrub, broad leaved deaduous, temporarilyflooded,
impounded
Palustrine, scrub shrub, broad leaved deaduous, semipermanently
flooded
Palustrine, unconsolidated bottom, permanentlyflooded, impounded
Palustrine, unconsolidated bottom, permanentlyflooded, excavated
Palustrine, unconsolidated shore, seasonallyflooded, impounded
115
Table 26 (Continued)
Area and Description of NWI Mapped Wetlandsand Deepwater Habitat
Within the Project Study Area
Wetland Area aa-es Description
Classification (hedares)
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
L1 UBHh 10,231.6 Lacustrine, limnetic, unconsolidated bottom, permanently flooded,
(4,140.4) impounded
L2US4h 4.3 (1.8) Lacustrine, littoral, unconsolidated shore, temporarilyflooded,
impounded
L2U9Ch 0.4 (0.2) Lacustrine, littoral, unoonsolidated shore, seasonally flooded, impounded
Three different systems are present in the study area: lacustrine, riverine, and palustrine. The
largest deepwater habitat within the study area is classified as lacustrine with limnetic waters
(greater than 6.6 feet [2.0 m] deep) and an unconsolidated bottom that is permanently flooded
due to impoundment (L1 UBHh). This system refers to the open waters of Fontana Lake and
is mapped as 10,231.6 acres (4,140.4 ha). The segment of the Tuckasegee River immediately
upstream of Fontana Lake was mapped as 60.7 acres (24.5 ha) of riverine wetland (R3UBH).
The combination of 28 small mapped wetland areas equals the 17.2 acres (6.9 ha) of
palustrine wetland that have been impounded (PUBHh). These wetlands, most likely
agricultural irrigation ponds, are located within the southern portion of the project area. The
combined area of the remaining 13 wetlands, which are scattered throughout the study area, is
23.4 acres (9.5 ha). These 13 wetlands are primarily shrubby or forested areas that are
temporarily flooded. As noted above, NWI maps are not field verified and tend to omit drier
rype or forested wetlands. On-th�ground surveys for wetlands will be conducted once the
study alternatives have been developed.
3.7.4 Navigable Waters
According to the Asheville Field Office of the USACE, the Little Tennessee River and
Fontana Lake are the only navigable waters in the project study area.
3.8 Floodplains
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), in cooperation with state and local
governments, has developed flood boundary and flood insurance mapping for a large portion
of North Carolina as part of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The NFIP defines
a floodplain as any land area susceptible to being inundated by water. The floodplain is
divided into two sections, the floodway and floodway fringe. The floodway is defined as the
channel of the stream and adjacent floodplain area that should be kept free of encroachment
so that a 100-year flood event may occur without increasing the level and extent of the base
flood elevations. The base, or 100-year, flood is defined as an event that is equaled or
exceeded, on average, once every 100 years. The floodway fringe, or the 100-year
116
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
floodplain, is the area between ihe floodway boundary and the 100-year floodplain boundary
(FEMA 2001).
In NFIP regular program communities, FEMA, in cooperation with other federal agencies
and state and local governments, conducts detailed flood studies to determine designated
floodways to safely remove floodwater during flood events. These studies result in floodway
boundaries, which are illustrated on Flood Insurance Rate Maps. The information obtained
through these studies is utilized by local jurisdictions in their land development ordinances
and regulations to discourage development in flood-prone areas. Approximate analyses were
performed far those areas in which the potential for development is low (FEMA ] 983).
These low development potential areas include GSMNP. For these areas, floodplain mapping
is not expected to be precise or include all flood-prone areas. However, more detailed
information will be obtained in the EIS process, which will include a hydraulic study. The
FEMA maps that cover the project study area include panel numbers 0075 C, 0100 C, 0125
C, 0138 C, 0139 C, 0200 C, 0202 C, 0206 C, 0207 C, and 0225 C of community map number
370227 for Swain Counry (revised December ] 5, 1989), map 370228 0005 B for Bryson City
(effective December 4, 1984), and panel numbers 0025 B and 0050 B for community map
370105 for Graham Counry (effective July ] 7, 1986). Based on FEMA mapping for the
project study area, the extent of floodplains is limited to second order or greater tributaries,
primarily along the southern side of Fontana Lake. General topography in this region is
steep, and most stream valleys are confined so that the extent of floodplain is limited. Those
streams with larger watersheds and broad valleys are mare susceptible to flooding during
major precipitation events. Figure 15 illustrates the extent of FEMA mapped floodplains in
the project study area.
Executive Order 11988, Floodplain Management, directs federal agencies ". .. to avoid to the
extent possible the long and short term adverse impacts associated with the occupancy and
modification of floodplains and to avoid direct or indirect support of floodplain development
wherever there is a practicable alternative" (EO 1977). Development of floodplains within
GSMNP is protected and monitored under DO #77-2: Floodplain Management, which is
scheduled to be released in final fonn in 2003 (NPS 2003c). Development of floodplains
within the national farest is protected and monitored under the Forest Seivice Manual Section
2500: Watershed and Air Management.
3.9 Biological Resources
3.9.1 Vegetative Communities
The study area encompasses approximately 120,000 acres (48,564 ha). Due to the immensity
of the study area, the subsequent plant community discussion is based on land cover data tbat
was obtained from the following three sources: GSMNP, the USFS, and the North Carolina
117
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (NCCGIA). Relationships between the
overall southern Appalachian ecosystem and the plant and animal communities, especially in
regards to increased regional development, will be studied as part of the indirect and
cumulative impact analysis in the DEIS, as necessary.
GSMNP provided a draft vegetative database and maps for the study area inside the park
boundaries. The Center for Remote Sensing and Mapping Science at the University of
Georgia created the detailed database and maps by utilizing 1:12,000- and 1:40,000-scale
color infrared aerial photographs. The park-wide data includes 100 overstory and 70
understory association-level vegetation classes. The vegetation classification is based on the
USGS Biological Resources Division/National Park Service National Vegetation
Classification System developed by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) as part of a nationwide
vegetation mapping program (Welch et al. 2002). Detailed descriptions of the vegetation
communities found in GSMNP are available as part of TNC's nationwide vegetation
classification and may be accessed at wwwNatureServe.org or in the International
Classifzcation of Ecological Corv�munities: Terrestr°ial Vegetation — Great Smoky Mountains
National Park subset (ICEC-GSMNP) (NatureServe 2003) (incorparated as part of
Vegetation Classification of Great Smoky Mountains National Park: Unpublished report,
2003).
The USFS provided the second source of vegetaTive cover mapping for areas inside
Nantahala National Forest boundaries. The data included information pertaining to the
overstory canopy composition and offered no information on understory or herbaceous
composition. Specifically, the data indicated the dominant canopy tree(s) of a given stand or
location. The vegetative classification scheme utilized by the USFS in this dataset is a
regionally developed scheme. Information regarding the forest rype and management rype
utilized in the USFS map is detailed in Southern Regional Silvicultural Examination and
Prescription Field Book (undated).
The final source of vegetative information was obtained through the NCCGIA. This center
continually creates and maintains a statewide GIS database encompassing an array of
information. The land cover data obtained from the NCCGIA is a general overview for the
entire study area, but it was specifically used in this application for only those areas not
covered by the other more focused datasets. Like the USFS data, this vegetative
classification scheme does not correspond to any published vegetation classification system.
The differences in the vegetative data supplied by the Park Service, Forest Service, and the
NCCGIA limited cross-comparability of the three sources. In an attempt to provide a unified
vegetation community profile of the area and to simplify later discussions, the vegetative
communities identified in the each of the three sources have been sorted into one of six
general vegetative categories. They are Upland Hardwood Forest, AlluviaUBottomland
118
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Forest, Mixed Pine/Hardwood Forest, Pine Forest, Early Successional Forest, and
Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural. Table 27 is a matrix showing the best approximation of cross-
comparability among the three datasets. Figure 16 shows the unified data map for the project
study area based on the general categories. The Miscellaneous category is a"catch-all" group
for communities in the three datasets that did not reasonably appear to fit into another general
category or lacked defining information.
Table 27
Cross-Reference of Vegetative Communities Found Within the Project Study Area
General Categories
Upland Hardwood Forest
Community
Alluvial/Bottomland Forest
Community
Mixed Rne/Hardwood Forest
Community
Rne Forest Community
EarIy.SLccessional Forest
Community
Urban/Disturbed/ Agriaaltural
Community
C�:i�il`►T�
Cove Mixed Hardwood
Northern Hardwood Forest
�ab Mesicto MesicOak/
Hardwood
�ab Xeric Oak/Hardwood
Montane Northern F�d Oak-White
Oak
Montane Alluvial
White Rne-�ab Xeric Oak
Flne-�ab Xeric Oak
Eastern White Ane
Rne
Southern Appalachian 6rly
9.iccessional Hardwoods
Human Influence
Finads
Pasture
Miscellaneous Eastern Hemlock
Dead Vegetation
Grape Vines
Graminoid
Fd�cks with �arse Vegetation
Inundated Gravel, Fmck, or S�nd,
3iccessonal Vegetation
9�rubland
Water
Forest Serviae
Hardwood Type
None
Rne-Hardwood Type
Hardwood-Ane Type
Rne Type
I�LF��3T\
Mixed Hardwoods
Other &oadleaf Deciduous Forest
Bottomland Hardwood
Hardwood 9�vamps
Mixed Hardwoods�Conifers
Mountain Conifers
None Unmanaged Upland Herbaceous
Deciduous 9�rubland
Mixed 9�rubland
None High Intensity Developed
Low Intensity Developed
Cultivated
Managed HerbaceousCover
None 6cposed F�ck
Unconsolidated Sediment
119
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
The Upland Hardwood Forest category is the most prevalent in the project study area,
covering approximately 75 percent of the study area. The Alluvial/Bottomland Forest
Communiry is the least prevalent, covering less than 5 percent of the study area. It is found
primarily along the banks of the Little Tennessee River in the southern portion of the study
area. Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural Community is found in and surrounding Bryson City and
in smaller communities found primarily along the US 19/LTS 74 and NC 28 corridors.
The following discussion has been included in order to provide as much detai] as possible
from each of the three datasets. The discussion is arranged by data source (GSNMP, USFS,
and NCCGIA), but within each the discussion is relative to the six general categories noted
above. Names and descriptions of plant species generally follow Radford et al. (1968), unless
more current information is available. Scientific nomenclature and common names (when
applicable) are provided for each plant species listed. Subsequent references to the same
species include the common name only.
3.9.1.1 GSMNPVegetation Mapping
The draft GSMNP vegetative distribution map is depicted in Figure 17A. The draft GSMNP
vegetative data for the study area includes approximately 23 different communities. Thirteen
of the communities correspond to one ar more detailed vegetation communities in the ICEC-
GSMNP and are discussed in detail below. The 10 remaining communities in the GSMNP
dataset are not defined by the vegetation classification system. They were allocated to the
Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural category or the Miscellaneous category, as appropriate.
Examplex of an undefined communiry are "dead vegetation" and "water."
3.9.1.1.1 Upland Hardwood Forest Category
Five of the vegetative communities mapped by GSMNP can be characterized in the Upland
Hardwood Forest Category. They include Cove Mixed Hardwoods, Northern Hardwoods,
Montane Northern Red Oak-White Oak, Sub Mesic to Mesic Oak/Hardwoods, and Sub Xeric
Oak/Hardwoods.
The first detailed upland hardwood forest type is Cove Mixed Hardwoods. The Cove Mixed
Hardwood forest mapped in the study area of tbe GSMNP is best described as a Southern
Appalachian Cove Forest in the ICEC-GSMNP. T`his community is located along several of
the first-arder streams found in the study area. It occurs between 2,000 and 4,500 feet (609
and 1371 m) msl on concave lower slopes and flats. The species that dominate the overstory
are a mixture of inesophytic species such as yellow buckeye (Aesculus,flava), white ash
(Fraxinus americana), white basswood, cucumber magnolia (Magnolia acuminata), and
other more tolerant species such as yellow poplar, red maple, eastern hemlock, and sweet
120
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
birch. The herbaceous layer is typically very species-rich and dense and includes species like
black bugbane (Actaea racemosa), hairy sweet cicely (Os�norhiza claytonii), and wood nettle.
The second detailed upland hardwood forest type is Northern Hardwood. It only occurs in
the north-central portion of the study area. This forest is defined as including portions of two
communities in the ICEC-GSMNP classification system, the Southern Appalachian Northern
Hardwood Forest (Typic Type) and the Southern Appalachian Northern Hardwood Forest
(Rich Type). The Typic Type is typically found over 4,000 feet (1,219 m) msl on open,
north-facing slopes in the Southern Blue Ridge. Tbe overstory canopy is usually dominated
by yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and yellow
buckeye. Other overstory trees that may be present are sugar maple (Acer saccharum), black
cherry (Prunus serotina), red oak (Quercus rubra), and silverbell (Halesia teti^aptera var.
rnonticola; syn. H. carolina). The understory shrub layer that can vary from absent to
moderately dense includes hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides), wild hydrangea (Hydrangea
arborescens), mountain holly (Ilex montana; syn. I. Ambigua var. rvaontana), and red
elderberry (Sambucus raceinosa var. pubens). The herbaceous cover is usually a mixture of
sedges, ferns, and other farbs and is dominated by Appalachian heartleaf aster (Eurybia
chlorolepis) and fancy fern (Dryopteris intermedia). The Rich Type are found on more
sheltered slopes with deep, rocky soils and have canopies dominated by yellow birch,
American beech, yellow buckeye, and silver maple. Other overstory species that may be
present are white basswood (Tilia montana var. heterophylla), red oak, and silverbell. T'he
typically open shrub layer is dominated by mountain maple (Acer spicatum), striped maple
(Acer pensylvanicum), and Allegheny serviceberry (Amelanchier laevis). This type of
northern hardwood forest has a rich herbaceous layer that is dominated by blue cohosh
(Caulophyllum thalictroides) and wood nettle (Laportea canadensis).
The third upland forest type is Montane Northern Red Oalc-Wl�ite Oak Forest. It is found
along the northern edge of the project study area and covers approximately 2 percent of the
study area in GSMNP. According to the ICEC-GSMNP, this community occurs along ridges
and inid-to-upper slopes on south- and southeastern-facing slopes between 3,500 and 5,000
feet (1,070 and 1,525 m). The canopy of this community is dominated by red oak. The shrub
layer is typically mare than 50 percent evergreen species and is dominated by mountain laurel
(Kalmia latzfolia), Catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense), and great
rhododendron (R. muxilnum). The herbaceous layer is usually sparse and is generally
dominated by galax (Gala� urceolata).
The fourth upland forest type is Sub-Mesic to Mesic Oak/Hardwood Forest. It comprises
approximately 50 percent of the total study area located in GSMNP and is represented by
three ICEC-GSMNP communities, Appalachian Montane Oak Hickory Forest (Typic Acidic
Type), Appalachian Montane Oak Hickory Farest (Red Oak Type), and Appalachian
Montane Oak Hickory Forest (Rich Type). The Typic Acidic Type is typically found on
121
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
lower slopes, bottoms, and coves between 2,000 and 4,500 feet (609 and 1,371 m) msl. The
canopy of this community is dominated by white oak (Quercus alba) as well as other oak
species like red oak, rock chestnut oak (Q. prinus), and scarlet oalc (Q. coccinea). Other
canopy species include mockernut hickory (Carya alba), pignut hickory (Carya glabra),
yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), red maple (Acer rubNUm), and Fraser magnolia
(Magnolia,fi^aseri). The sparse to very dense shrub layer is generally dominated by mountain
laurel, bear huckleberry (Gaylussacia montana), and flame azalea (Rhododendron
calendulaceum). The herbaceous layer ranges from sparse to moderate, but can be species
rich. The dominants in this layer are two ferns, New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensis)
and Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides). The Red Oak Type community occurs
along mid- to upper-, moderately steep, northern to eastern and southeastern facing slopes
between 2,000 and 4,000 feet (609 and 1,219 m) msl. The canopy is usually dominated by
red oak and co-dominated by red maple, yellow poplar, and white oak. The understory is
comprised of silverbell, sweet birch (Betula lenta), eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis),
flowering dogwood (Cornus.florida), striped maple, and sourwood (O.�ydendrum arboreum).
The sparse shrub layer is dominated by bear huckleberry or great rhododendron, and the
sparse to moderate species rich herbaceous layer is dominated by New York fern. The Rich
Type community is dominated by white oak and occurs from 2,000 to 4,500 feet (609 to
1,371 m) msl on both exposed and protected sites. Other canopy species include northern red
oak, scarlet oak, rock chestnut oak, pignut hickory, and mockernut hickory. Common species
in the subcanopy are sourwood and flowering dogwood. The herbaceous layer is typically
diverse and dominated by richweed (Collinsonia canadensis), mayapple (Podophyllum
peltatum), and bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis).
The final upland hardwood forest type defined in GSMNP is Sub Xeric Oak/Hardwood
Forest. It occurs throughout the study area in GSMNP. The two ICEC-GSMNP
communities that best describe this forest are the Appalachian Montane Oak-Hickory Forest
(Chestnut Oak Type) and the Chestnut Oak Forest (Xeric Ridge Type). The Appalachian
Montane Oalc-Hickory Forest (Chestnut Oak Type) is generally located below 3,000 feet (9l4
m) msl on moderately steep to steep, northern- to southwestern-facing slopes. The overstory
is dominated by rock chestnut oak and co-dominated by red maple. Other overstory species
include pignut hickory, yellow poplar, and northern red oak. The subcanopy is often
dominated by flowering dogwood. The shrub layer is sparse and no one species is dominant.
Species found in this layer include bear huckleberry, wild hydrangea, snowy hydrangea
(Hydrangea radiata), mountain laurel, Fraser magnolia, sassafras (Sassafras albidum), and
early lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum). The herbaceous layer is also sparse;
however, it can be diverse. Typical species are white wood-aster (Eurybia divaricata),
striped pipsissewa (Chiinaphila inaculata), bar�stemmed tick-trefoil (Desmodium
nudiflorum), panic grass (Dichanthelium spp.), and rattle-snake root (Prenanthes spp.). The
Chestnut Oak Forest (Xeric Ridge Type) community commonly occurs on ridgetops and
south- to west-facing slopes over shallow, acidic, rocky soils. The dominant canopy species
122
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
include rock chestnut oak and scarlet oak, with other canopy species such as black oak
(Quercus velutina), northern red oak, southern red oak (Q. falcata), sourwood, blackgum
(Nyssa sylvatica), and red maple. The dense shrub layer can be dominated by either
evergreen or deciduous species including mountain laurel, great rhododendron, deerberry
(Vaccinium stamineum), early low bush blueberry, bear huckleberry, black huckleberry
(Gaylussacia baccata), and American chestnut (Castanea dentata) as abundant stump
sprouts. The herbaceous layer is usually sparse and may include species such as trailing
arbutus (Epigaea repens), galax, and wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens).
3.9.1.l .2 Alluvial/Bottomland Forest Category
One vegetative community, Montane Alluvial, mapped by GSMNP can be characterized in
the AlluvialBottomland Forest Category.
The Montane Alluvial community occurring within the study area in GSMNP is represented
in the ICEC-GSMNP as Appalachian Montane Alluvial Forest. This community is found
along the majority of the streams in the study area and is documented as occurring below
3,000 feet (914 m) on narrow, rocky floodplains and islands in medium-sized rivers. The
overstory dominants include sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), yellow poplar, white ash,
yellow bircb (Betula alleghaniensis), and sweet birch. Other canopy/subcanopy species that
may be present are ironwood (Carpinus caroliniana), river birch (Betula nigra), red maple,
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), eastem white pine (P. sb^obus), and eastern hemlock. The
shrub layer may be dense and dominated by either mountain doghobble (Leucothoe
.fontanesiana) or great rhododendron. Vines that can be found in this community include
pipevine (Aristolochia macrophylla), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia),
whiteleaf greenbrier (Smilax glauca), common greenbrier (S. rotundifolia), and summer
grape (Vitis aestivalis). The herbaceous layer may be sparse on the rocky floodplain.
Common species that occur in this layer are sedges (Carex spp.), American hog-peanut
(Amphicarpaea bracteata), subarctic lady-fern (Athyrium filix-femina), Indian cucumber-root
(Medeola virginiana), and smootb white violet (Viola blanda).
3.91.13 Mixed Pine/Hardwood Forest Category
Two vegetative communities mapped by GSMNP can be characterized in the Mixed
Pine/Hardwood Forest Category. The vegetative communities include the White Pine — Sub
Xeric Oak and Pine — Sub Xeric Oak.
In the ICEC-GSMNP, Appalachian White Pine — Xeric Oak Forest best represents the White
Pine — Sub Xeric Oak community. This forest is mapped as occurring in small pockets in the
westem portion of the study area. It is generally located below 3,000 feet (914 m) msl on
exposed upper slopes and ridgetops. The canopy is typically dominated by white pine, rock
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E�cisting Conditions
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chestnut oak, and scarlet oak. Sourwood, red maple, blackgum, and flowering dogwood are
dominates in the subcanopy. The shrub layer is dominated by either deerberry or bear
huckleberry.
The Pine — Sub Xeric Oak is described in the ICEC-GSMNP as the Appalachian Low
Elevation Mixed Pine/Hillside Blueberry Forest. This community is found throughout the
study area. It is usually located on low-elevation ridges and steep upper slopes over shallow,
infertile soils. The dominant overstory species is Virginia pine, with other dry site oaks such
as rock chestnut oak and scarlet oak occurring as co-dominates. The very dense to sparse
shrub layer is dominated by early lowbush blueberry, deerberry, and mountain laurel.
Common species that may be present in the sparse herbaceous layer are galax, striped
pipsissewa, variable witchgrass (Dichanthelium commutatum), trailing arbutus, bracken fern
(Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculunz), and little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium).
3.9.1.l .4 Pine Forest Category
Two vegetative communities mapped by GSMNP can be characterized in the Pine Forest
Category. They are the Eastern White Pine forest and the Pine forest.
The Eastern White Pine community is represented in the ICEC-GSMNP as Eastern White
Pine Successional Forest. The majority of the occurrences of this communiry in the study
area are found near a number of streams and Fontana Lake. This community typically has a
very dense canopy and little understory and is located in former old fields and formerly
cleared flats along streams. Eastern white pine dominates the canopy with yellow poplar, red
maple, pitch pine (Pinus rigida), and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) as co-dominants.
Eastern hemlock is known to form a dense shrub layer. The herbaceous layer is commonly
dominated by species found in open and disturbed areas.
Virginia Pine Successional Forest is the community for the ICEC-GSMNP that best describes
the Pine forest. The GSMNP map indicates this communiry is located near streams and
Fontana Lake. Tl�is community has a dense canopy dominated by Virginia pine and little
understory. It is known to occur in dry, open areas with bare mineral soil created by old
felds, old pastures, clearcuts, and burning or erosion. Other species likely to be present in
the canopy include red maple, sweetgum, yellow poplar, and red, black and scarlet oaks. The
sparse shrub and herbaceous layer is generally comprised of ruderal and exotic species found
in open and disturbed areas.
3.9.1.1.5 Early Successional Forest Category
One vegetative communiry mapped by GSMNP can be characterized in the Early
Successional Farest Category, the Southern Appalachian Early Successional Hardwoods.
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This community is defined in the ICEC-GSMNP as the Early Successional Appalachian
Hardwood Forest. It is typically located in upland areas that were once clearcut, old fields,
strip-mined, cleared by fire ar other natural disturbances, and are in the process of
revegetation by root and stump sprouts. Typically, stands are approximately 20 to 40 acres (8
to 16 ha) in size. They are dominated by early successional species such as yellow poplar,
red maple, and a small number of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). Virginia pine may
also occur as a canopy species in these stands. Shrubs can be sparse to moderate in coverage,
with varying composition, but often are composed of saplings of the canopy species. The
herbaceous layer can vary from containing shad�intolerant species to shad�tolerant species
depending on site conditions and can be dominated by dense clumps of fan club-moss
(Lycopodium dzgitatum). Vine species are common and often abundant. Typical vines are
Virginia creeper, whiteleaf greenbriar, common greenbriar, and poison ivy.
3.9.1.1.6 Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural Category
Communities mapped by GSMNP that can be categorized as Urban/Disturbed/ Agricultural
are the areas of Human Influence, Roads, and Pastures. The Roads and Pasture communities
are widely scattered in very small pockets throughout the study area. Both the Human
Influence and Rocks with Sparse Vegetation communities tend to be concentrated around
Fontana Dam. The Rocks with Sparse Vegetation community is thought to correspond with
two powerline rights-of-way heading west from the Dam. The communities in this category
do not correspond to any described in the ICEC-GSMNP, and therefore no additional detail
can be provided.
3.9.1.1.7 Miscellaneous
This category is a catch-all group for communities that cannot readily be included in the six
previous categories. Communities including Dead Vegetation; Graminoid; Inundated Gravel,
Rock, or Sand; Rocks with Sparse Vegetation; Sparse Vegetation; Successional Vegetation;
and Water, as mapped by GSMNP, have no cross reference to any of the ICEC-GSMNP
communities and no definitions have been provided. The Dead Vegetation communiry
occurs along the eastern end of the study area and in a few small pockets in the center of the
study area. The Pasture community is located in a small area along Hazel Creek near Proctor.
The Graminoid communiry is found in the far southeastern corner of the study area in
GSMNP. The Inundated Gravel, Rock, or Sand communiry occurs along the borders of
Eagle and Hazel creeks and Fontana Lake. The Sparse Vegetation community is found in
two small areas near Proctor and other areas in the western end of tbe study area. The
Successional Vegetation community is located in five small areas in the eastern half of the
study area. The Water designation referrs to the water in Fontana Lake and the major streams
in the study area.
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The remaining three communities Eastern Hemlock, Grape Vines, and Shrubland do have
corresponding ICEC-GSMNP communities. The Eastern Hemlock communiry is best
described as the Southern Appalachian Eastern Hemlock Forest (Typic Type). 1'here are 11
small patches of this communiry scattered throughout the study area. This community is
typically found in lower or protected slopes and terraces above 1,800 feet (548 m) msl. It is
dominated by eastern hemlock and co-dominated by yellow poplar, white basswood, eastern
white pine, Fraser magnolia, red maple, and white ash. Shrub layer dominants include
mountain sweet pepperbush (Clethra acuminata) and mountain doghobble. The sparse to
moderate herbaceous layer may be comprised of spotted wintergreen (Chimaphila inaculata),
Indian cucumber-root, Christmas fern, and beetle-weed.
The Grape Vine community is defined in the ICEGGSMNP as the Montane Grape Opening.
This communiry is mapped in a very small area in the far northwestern edge of the study area.
It is dominated by summer grape (Vitis aestivalis), which covers 50 to 100 percent of the area
where it is found hanging in almost all the trees and on the ground. Trees in the canopy and
subcanopy have less than 50 percent coverage and the shrub and herbaceous layers are
rypically sparse. In the study area this community occurs on steep to very steep, north-facing
slopes between 2,000 and 3,500 feet (600 and 1,000 m) msl.
The Shrubland community is defined in the ICEC-GSMNP as the Southern Appalachian
Mountain Laurel Bald. In the study area this com��nuniry is mapped on Welch Ridge and in a
small area along the westem edge. This community is typically found between 4,000 and
5,000 feet (1,219 and 1,524 m) msl on ridges and steep, rocky slopes. Natural disturbances
such as windfall, landslides, and small lightning-caused fires are needed to establish and
maintain these communities. It is dominated by shrubs such as mountain laurel and Catawba
rhododendron and co-dominated by black huckleberry, mountain fetterbush (Pieris
.floribunda), and highbush blueberry (Vaccinium cory�nbosurrz). These shrubs can form dense
thickets with only small openings over exposed rock that may have some growth of lichens or
herbs. The herbaceous layer is absent or sparse in this community and only a few, scattered
seedlings of red maple, Fraser magnolia, and northern red oak are present.
3.9.1.2 Forest Service Vegetation Mapping
The Forest Service vegetative data for the study area is mapped in Figure 17B. It includes
four major types of vegetative communities. Each major forest type is further divided by
dominant species and management code. This classification system is based solely on the
canopy species. There is no reference to understory or herbaceous species within the
community descriptions. No information is provided that would allow for cross-referencing
to a published classification such as the ICEC-GSMNP. The purpose of the USFS
classification system appears to be for the management of forest resources. The dataset
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E�cisting Conditions
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provided by the USFS does not cover a portion of Nantahala National Forest in the east-
central portion of the project study area.
3.9.1.2.1 Upland Hardwood Forest Category
The Forest Service Hardwood Type vegetative class is included in the Upland Hardwood
Forest Category. The Forest Service defines this community as at least 70 percent of the
dominant and co-dominant trees are hardwoods, based on basal area. This community covers
approximately 50 percent of the area mapped by the USFS with the majoriry of the
community concentrated in the southwestern portion of the study area.
There are 32 forest subtypes within the Hardwood Type vegetative class; however, only eight
subrypes are located with the project study area. The subrypes within the study area include
Yellow Poplar, Post Oak-Black Oak, Chesmut Oak, White Oak-Red Oak-Hickory, Northern
Red Oak, Yellow Poplar-White Oak-Red Oak, Scarlet Oak, and Chesinut Oak-Scarlet Oak.
Each of these subrypes is acceptable as a management type when approved by the regional
forester through the land management planning process.
3.9.1.2.2 Alluvial/Bottomland Forest Category
There is no corresponding vegetative class within the Forest Service classification system that
meets the description of the AlluvialBottomland Forest Categoiy.
3.9.1.23 Mixed Pine/Hardwood Forest Category
The USFS Pine-Hardwood and Hardwood-Pine Types are included in the Mixed
Pine/Hardwood Forest Category. The Farest Service defines these two vegetative classes as
stands in which 51 to 69 percent of the dominant and co-dominant basal areas are softwoods
or hardwoods, respectively. Tbese two communities comprise approximately 30 percent of
the area mapped by the USFS and occur in proximiry to Fontana Lake and the streams
feeding into it.
There are 13 subtypes within the Pine-Hardwood Type community; however, there are only
four subtypes found within the study area including White Pine-Cove Hardwood, White Pin�
Upland Hardwood, Shortleaf Pin�Oak, and Pitch Pin�Oak. There are ten subrypes within
the USFS Hardwood-Pine Type with only the following five subtypes in the study area:
Cove Hardwoods-White Pin�Hemlock, Southern Red Oak-Yellow Pine, Chestnut Oak-
Scarlet Oak- Yellow Pine, White Oak-Black Oak-Yellow Pine, and Northern Red Oak-
Hickory-Yellow Pine. Yellow Pine refers to any of the following species of pine: loblolly,
shortleaf, longleaf, slash, Virginia, pitch, or pond. All of the subtype communities within the
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Pine-Hardwood and Hardwood Pine Type Communities are acceptable as a management type
when approved by the regional forester through the land management planning process.
3.9.1.2.4 Pine Forest Category
The USFS Pine Type can be classified in the Pine Forest Category. The Pine Type class is
defined by the USFS as stands in which at least 70 percent of the dominant and co-dominant
species are softwoods, based on basal area. The Forest Service has mapped the Pine Type
community as occurring adjacent to streams with the largest portion of this community found
along tributaries to Wolf Creek.
There are 21 subtypes within this major community type with five subtypes identified within
the project study area. The Pine subtype vegetative communities within the study area
include White Pine, White Pin�Hemlock, Yellow Pine, Shortleaf Pine, and Pitch Pine. All
of these subtypes are acceptable as management types except for White Pine-Hemlock
subrype which is an unacceptable management type.
3.9.1.2.5 Early Successional Forest Category
There is no vegetative community within the Forest Service classification system that meets
the description of Early Successional Forest Category.
3.9.1.2.6 Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural Category
There is no vegetative community within the Farest Service classification system that meets
the description of Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural Category.
3.9.1.3 NCCGIA Land Cover Data
The NCCGIA land cover data for the study area is mapped on Figure 17C. It includes 12
different communities. NCCGIA's classification is based on EOSAT Landsat Thematic
Mapping for land cover and does not correspond with any published classification system.
The purpose of the dataset is to depict the land cover and land use across North Carolina and
within 0.6 mile (1 km) of the state's borders for management purposes. The source of the
Land Cover — TM is the North Carolina Geographic Database and was published in 1998.
3.9.13.1 Upland Hardwood Forest Category
Mixed Hardwoods and Other Broadleaf Deciduous Forest are two land cover types that are
included in the Upland Hardwood Forest Category. Both cover rypes are areas where the
dominant deciduous woody vegetation is above 10 feet (3 m) in height and has a crown
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E�cisting Conditions
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density of at least 25 percent. NCCGIA has mapped these communities over 65 percent of
the entire study area.
3.9.13.2 Alluvial/Bottomland Forest Category
Bottomland Hardwoods/Hardwood Swamps occur in lowland and wet areas and are included
in the Alluvial/Bottomland Forest Category. This land cover type is dominated by deciduous
woody vegetation above 10 feet (3 m) in height and with a crown density of at least 25
percent. This community is mapped as occurring in the eastern half of the study area in
scattered areas near streams making up less than 5 percent of the total study area.
3.9.133 Mixed Pine/Hardwood Forest Category
The Mixed Hardwoods/Conifers land cover category is equivalent to the Mixed
Pine/Hardwood Forest Category. NCCGIA describes this communiry as forestland with at
least a 25 percent intermixture of deciduous and evergreen species. In the mountains, this
classification has hardwoods (mainly oak) that constitute a plurality of stocking, but pines
also account for 25 to 50 percent of the stocking. This community is scattered throughout,
occurring close to streams over approximately ] 0 percent of the study area.
3.9.1.3.4 Pine Forest Category
NCCGIA's Mountain Conifers land cover is included as the Pine Forest Category. Mountain
Conifers include areas where stocking of trees is 75 percent evergreen needle leaf and broad
leaf species, including the following forest types: white pine, hemlock, and spruce-fir. The
NCCGIA has mapped this community as covering approximately 10 percent of the study area
with the largest proportion occurring adjacent to streams.
3.9.1.3.5 Early Successional Farest Category
Three NCCGIA land cover categories are included in the Early Successional Forest Category
including Unmanaged Upland Herbaceous, Deciduous Shrubland, and Mixed Shrubland.
Unmanaged Upland Herbaceous areas are covered by herbaceous vegetation that is not
characteristic of riverine or estuarine environments. Deciduous Shrubland communities are
areas where deciduous vegetation is dominated by sbrubs and/or woody plants below 10 feet
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E�cisting Conditions
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(3 m) in height; whereas, Mixed Shrubland communities are dominated by neither evergreen
or deciduous shrubs and/or woody plants below 10 feet (3 m) in height. These communities
are mapped in a few scattered areas in the eastern half of the study area and comprise less
than 5 percent of the tota] study area.
3.9.13.6 Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural Category
Four NCCGIA land cover communities within the project study area are comparable to the
Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural Category: High Intensity Developed, Low Intensity
Developed, Cultivated, and Managed Herbaceous Cover. High Intensiry Developed is
defined as more than 80 percent coverage by synthetic land cover and Low Intensity
Developed is defined as between 50 and 80 percent coverage by synthetic land cover.
Cultivated lands are areas that are occupied by row and root crops that are in distinguishable
rows and patterns. Managed Herbaceous Cover are areas used for the production of grass and
other forage crops, and other actively managed areas of herbaceous cover such as golf
courses and cemeteries. The largest concentration of these communities is mapped as
occurring at or near Bryson City in the eastern portion of the study area.
3.9.2 Terrestrial Wildlife
GSMNP and Nantahala National Forest compose the majoriry of the project study area.
Collectively, the project study area provides diverse habitats for wildlife due to large
expanses of contiguous forest, various plant communities, ample water and food supply, and
elevations that range from approximately 1,700 feet (518 m) msl to 5,000 feet (1,524 m) msl.
The uninterrupted nature of some forested tracts in the project study area allows the
proliferation of interior woodland species, while areas of disturbed lands provide habitat far
edge species. Wildlife for this report includes terrestrial members of the animal kingdom that
occur within the study area, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Terrestrial
invertebrates in the study area are represented by many species-rich groups. GSMNP is
habitat for a number of groups that have regional, continental, or global centers of diversity.
Examples of these animals include moths, land snails, arachnids, beetles, wasps, and many
others. Many of the species are restricted to specialized habitats controlled by geology, soils,
and topographic position, among other factars. These species play critical roles in the
ecosystem, such as parasite/predatars of other invertebrates, pollinators, decomposers, and
herbivores.
Initial screening-level surveys for wildlife in the project study area were conducted in May
and June 2003. These surveys included active searching and capture (as allowed by permit),
Indicatesevidence or direct sghtingsof speciesduring field reconnaissance.
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as well as observing the characteristic signs including sounds, tracks, scat, and burrows.
Animal names and descriptions follow Conant and Collins (1998), Lee et al. (1980 et seq.),
Linzey (1995), and Rohde et aL (1994). Scientific nomenclature and common names (when
applicable) are provided for each animal species listed. Subsequent references to the same
organism include only the common name. Evidence or direct sightings of species during
field reconnaissance is indicated by an asterisk (*).
Though most animals do not consciously remain within strict plant community boundaries
they are influenced to a great extent by the presence of varying vegetative communities. The
broad vegetative communities found within the study area include Upland Hardwood Forest
Community, Alluvial/Bottomland Forest Community, Mixed Pine/Hardwood Forest
Community, Pine Forest Community, Early Successional Forest Community, and
Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural Communiry. These vegetative communities are defined and
discussed in detail in Section 3.9.1.
Each vegetative community offers a unique assemblage of food and cover determined by
numerous factors including elevation, geology, microclimate, available seed source,
hydrology, and natural and human-influenced disturbance. The availability of food, water
and cover are the primary factars that determine wildlife distribution. There is often a rough
correlation between vegetative communities and wildlife distribution, especially for animals
with specific habitat requirements. Generalists such as the white tailed deer* (Odocoileus
virginianus) and American black bear* (Ursus americanus) are found across a wide range of
vegetative communities due to their ability to utilize a wide range of food sources. Given the
variations in animal habit it is difficult and somewhat misleading to group wildlife based on
strictly defined individual natural community types.
For the purposes of this report, animals that regularly inhabit all ar most of the ecosystems
present within the study area, the generalists, are discussed first. Afterward, the wildlife more
restricted in range is described for the lowest elevation ecosystems followed by those found at
increasing elevations. It is understood that this approach has some innate inconsistencies
because elevation is the primary factar used to determine placement of wildlife within the
natural communities. All of the ecosystems discussed are referenced to the vegetative
communities previously discussed.
In order to keep the substantial list of wildlife species to a manageable number, only a portion
of the total species found within the study area are discussed below. More extensive
checklists of species are provided by the Great Smoky Mountains Natural History
Association. The checklist pamphlets include Mammals of the Great Smoky Mountains,
Birds of the Great Smoky Mountains, and Amphibians and Reptiles of the Great Smolcy
Indicatesevidence or direct sghtingsof speciesduring field reconnaissance.
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Mountains. Additional information regarding mammal and bird species and their distribution
in GSMNP is available at www.dlia.org. A checklist pamphlet from the Great Smoky
Mountains Natural History Association of Butterflies and Skippers of the Great Smoky
Mountains is also available, but these species are not discussed in this report.
In general, animals adapt to various habitats or natural communities based on the availabiliry
of adequate food and cover. Animals that are successful in adapting to multiple environments
are found throughout the entire study area. These animals represent a diverse cross section of
behaviors and each has successfully carved a niche for itself in competitive environments.
Ce�'I'�tJ/L_. u ���
Mammals found throughout the six vegetative communities include opportunistic omnivores
such as the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), and
raccoon* (Procyon lotor). The latter two species are categarized as carnivores, but often eat
vegetative matter. These omnivores feed on a wide assortment of items including
blackberries, wild grapes, acorns and other nuts, earthwottns, shrews, insects, bird eggs,
snakes, wood frogs, and toads. These tY►ree species are primarily nocturnal. They all occupy
slightly different niches in the ecosystem with the opossum nesting in almost any crevice
using leaves and grass for cover, the striped skunk residing in a subterranean den often
vacated by other mammals such as woodchucks (Marmota monax), and the raccoon utilizing
mostly hollow logs for dens.
Omnivorous rodents such as the eastern chipmunk* (Tamias striatus), whit�footed mouse*
(Peromyscus leucopus), and deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) can also be found
throughout the natural and man-influenced environments. These smaller mammals eat a
similarly diverse diet as described above but without the larger vertebrates such as snakes and
frogs. The eastern chipmunk resides beneath any natural structure large enough to conceal a
burrow. The white-footed mouse resides either beneath leaves and grasses on the ground or
above the forest floor in abandoned nests of other animals. The golden mouse is often found
at slightly higher elevations but with a]ifestyle and range that is very similar to the white-
footed mouse.
The much larger, omnivorous black bear is a solitary animal that consumes a variery of
berries and nuts, grasses, beetles and other insects such as wasps and ants, honey, and carrion.
They can be active all year around; however, during the winter months most bears hibernate
in tree cavities, hollow logs, overhanging rock ledges, and fallen evergreen trees. Due to
their curious and wandering nature, the black bear is found throughout the numerous
vegetative communities within the study area. There are approximately 1,800 black bears in
Indicatesevidence or direct sghtingsof speciesduring field reconnaissance.
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E�cisting Conditions
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GSMNP and are considered the park's largest native mammal. VanManen (1994), studying
bear habitat use in GSMNP, found that female black bears frequently used habitats that were
characterized by tulip poplar, mesic mixed hardwood and xeric oak vegetation rypes (Upland
Hardwood Forest Communities in this report), high vegetation richness, middle elevations,
moderately steep slopes, northwestern aspects, historic settlement, in proximity to trails, and
large distances from human activity sites and improved roads. Male black bears used similar
habitat, but were also frequently found in pine woodlands, areas closer to human activity
sites, and historically uncut areas. The GSMNP portion of the study area contains most of the
black bear frequent-use characteristics, with the exception of a northwestern aspect. The
black bear has no known natural predators besides man and is protected within GSMNP, as is
all wildlife. However, those bears found outside the park are considered game animals and
can be killed during specified hunting seasons.
In addition to the omnivores, carnivores also range throughout the numerous vegetative
communities within the study area and enjoy a wide array of food sources. These carnivares
include the least shrew (Cryptotis parva), masked shrew (Sorex cinereus), eastern mole
(Scalopus aquaticus), long-tailed weasel (Mustela fi�enata), coyote (Canis latrans), and
bobcat (Lynx rufus). The shrews feed on many terrestrial invertebrates including insects,
earthworms, and snails and sometimes small vertebrates such as snakes and frogs. For cover,
the shrews construct nests of grass and leaves underneath rocks, logs, stumps, or metal. The
eastern mole has a similar diet to the shrews, but is almost exclusively a subterranean species
living in burrows just below the soil surface. The long-tailed weasel's primary food sources
are small rodents. They den in almost any sheltered area including abandoned burrows,
hollow logs, woodpiles, and structures such as barns. Perhaps the most secretive is the
coyote, which resides by day in subterranean dens. At night the coyote hunts rabbits and
rodents, seeks carrion, and is known to also eat vegetable matter such as fruits. Coyotes have
expanded their range from the western states into the eastern portion of the country over the
past several decades. In 1982, the first coyote was observed in GSMNP, and coyotes have
been reported in low numbers in many sections of the park since then. This migration is
thought to be due to many reasons including the clearing of forests, extirpation of wolves in
the eastern states, the construction of roadways used as corridors for travel, and intentional
release by humans. The bobcat is also nocturnal and feeds mainly on smaller mammals such
as the eastern cottontail, eastem chipmunk, and mice. Dens are constructed on the ground in
brush piles or hollow trees.
Three major herbivores that occur throughout all of the vegetative communities within the
study area are the gray squirrel* (Sciurus carolinensis), woodland vole (Microtus pinetor�um),
and whit�tailed deer. The gray squirrel feeds on acorns and nuts from mast producing trees,
and constructs nests in these same trees. The woodland vole constructs an extensive system
Indicatesevidence or direct sghtingsof speciesduring field reconnaissance.
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E�cisting Conditions
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of tunnels for food and cover. Their primary food sources are shoots, roots, and seeds. The
larger, white-tailed deer is a browser and feeds on the leaves and twigs of a wide variety of
plants, including agricultural crops. They occur at low densities throughout the study area
and are active mainly during the early morning and early afternoon. Besides man, their main
predators are dogs that chase them to the point of exhaustion and then kill them. Other
predators of deer include the bobcat, coyote, and black bear. For cover, the whit�tailed deer
beds down beneath the forest canopy, which in the early successional and urban/disturbed/
agricultural communities can be quite dense and low hanging.
An often overlooked group of inammals present throughout the study area is bats. There are
11 known species of bats within the study area. Al] 1 l species feed on insects in the warmer
months and either hibernate or migrate in the colder months. Bats have poorly developed
sense of sight and depend on echolocation to determine where they are and to locate food.
They feed on mosquitoes, moths, beetles, mayflies, and other flying insects. Two common
bats likely to be present throughout the study area are the eastern pipistrelle (Pipistrellus
subflavus) and red bat (Lasiurus borealis). The eastern pipistrelle roosts in caves, rock
crevices, and mines, while the red bat roosts in trees and shrubs. The Rafinesque's big-eared
bat (Plecotus rafinesguii or Corynorhinus rafinesquii) is a federal species of concem that is
known to occur within the study area. They are likely to be one of the most common bats in
the study area. The largest known hibernating colony of this species is found in the
abandoned mines in the northwestern portion of the study area (Linzey, 1995).
Correct climate is important for all animals, but is critical for the survival of snake species.
Within the correct climate, food and cover remain the determining factors for their
distribution. Snake species that are adaptable to the numerous vegetative communities found
throughout the study area include the midland brown snake (Storeria dekayi wrightor�um),
eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis), northern black racer* (Coluber constrictor
constrictor), timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus), and black rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta
obsoleta). Depending on the species, snakes forage on anything including slugs, earthworms,
insects, small mammals, eggs, fish, and amphibians. Tl�ese generalist snalces tend to reside in
rocicy sheltered den sites along warm south-facing slopes.
Both migratory and resident birds have the abiliry to travel great distances in search of good
food sources, and thus many species of birds are found throughout the numerous and diverse
vegetative communities within the study area. The year-round bird species found throughout
the study area include downy woodpecker* (Picoides pubescens), northem cardinal*
(Cardinalis cardinalis), pileated woodpecker* (Dryocopus pileatus), red-bellied
woodpecker* (Melanerpes carolinus), Carolina chickadee� (Poecile carolinensis), American
robin* (Turdus migratorius), and blue jay* (Cyanocitta cristata). These species primarily eat
Indicatesevidence or direct sghtingsof speciesduring field reconnaissance.
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insects in warm weather months and berries or birdseed in winter months. Other year-round
bird species common throughout the study area, but who eat primarily nuts or berries include
the dark-eyed junco* (Junco hyemalis), white-breasted nuthatch* (Sitta carolinensis), and
cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedror�um). The eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe) is a common
insectivorous year-round resident. The ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris)
also eats insects, but its primary food is the nectar in flowers. Predatory birds expected to be
in these communities are the red-tailed hawk (Buteo janzaicensis) and eastern screech owl
(Otus asio). These predatory birds primarily consume rodents and other small animals. Birds
that can reside in all of tbe vegetative communities are generalists and typically nest in trees
or man-made structures.
3.9.2.2 Urban/Disturbed/Agricultural Habitats
Many mammals primarily utilize the urban/disturbed/agricultural communities, largely due to
the relatively open environments. This vegetative community usually occurs at low to
moderate elevations in the study area. Sparse and/or immature vegetation or crops dominate
the vegetation in early successional and agricultural areas. Large, well-spaced mature trees
are present within residential areas. This combination of vegetation encourages the
proliferation of edge species. Edge species have become accustomed to human activity and
generally use the mature trees for cover and the open areas as a source for food.
Herbivores such as the eastem cottontail* (Sylvilagus.floridanus) and eastern harvest mouse
(Reithrodontornys humulis) are often found in old fields or residential backyards. The eastern
cottontail has a widely variable diet, but herbaceous perennials provide the primary food
source. Nests are constructed in small holes on the ground using any plant material available
and lined with fur. The eastern harvest mouse is limited to the lowest elevations of the
project study area, primarily around the Bryson City area. Seeds provide the majoriry of their
food source and their globular nests are made from plant material. Mice are hunted
relentlessly by snakes and birds in these areas.
Several mammals found within the human-influenced communities take advantage of the
food and shelter provided by man. Rodents, including the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus),
black rat (Rattus rattus), and house mouse (Mus musculus), exploit the resources provided by
man. These rodents nest in residences, sewers, ar garbage dumps and often need to be
controlled due to their prolific reproduction. All three rodents feed on anything edible
including garbage, grains, birds, rabbits, and even their own young. These rodents were all
introduced to North America from Europe and few are found in natural undisturbed habitats.
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Although herbivores have an apparent advantage in these human-influenced vegetative
communities, there are omnivores that are successful in surviving here. These unique
mammals include the woodchuck and hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus). Woodchucks
typically reside in burrows along roadsides or forest edges and are often seen sitting on their
haunches surveying their domain. Although they are known to eat animal matter, it is rare
and not the preferred food source. Likewise, the hispid cotton rat rarely eats animal matter,
subsisting primarily upon shoots, seeds, and roots. These rodents are often found in dense
grasses that provide good cover.
The changes man has brought to North America over the past several hundred years drove
out many species of birds; however, some adapted quite well and have thrived in this man-
influenced environment. These birds include the chimney swift (Chaetura pelagica),
mouming dove* (Zenaida macroura), tufted titmouse* (Baeolophus bicolor), American
crow* (Corvus brachyrhynchos), indigo bunting (Passerina cyanea), eastern bluebird (Sialia
sialis), barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), song sparrow (Melospiza melodia), white-eyed vireo
(Vireo griseus), and eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna). Many of these bird species have
come to depend upon man far food, but all tend to eat insects in the summer and vegetable
matter in the winter. These birds, more so than the generalists that reside throughout all
communities, live either in structures provided by man or in nearby trees that are protected by
man. Two carrion feeders likely to be found in these open communities are the black vulture
(Coragyps atzatus) and turkey vulture (Cathartes aura). Both vultures are known to feed on
dead carcasses; however, the black vulture prefers larger prey than the turkey vulture.
Vultures do not construct nests, preferring instead to reside in dark locations such as caves,
hollow trees, and abandoned buildings. The American kestral (Falco sparverius) is a
common predatory bird of open areas, especially pastures and cultivated fields. They are
often observed on utilities poles in search of prey, which includes insects, small rodents, and
small birds.
In the urban/disturbed/agricultural habitats, amphibian species are likely to be scarce. Few
undisturbed breeding pools are likely to be found in agricultural fields or in the urban
developed areas such as Bryson City. The American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) is the most
likely amphibian to be seen in this community. It prefers to be near permanent bodies of
water and may be found along the larger streams or ponds in this habitat.
In developed areas, reptile species such as snakes may be more frequent due to the abundance
of rodents near residences and agricultural lands. The snakes found in disturbed habitats are
rypically generalists, those species noted previously that are present throughout the study
area. Two lizards likely to inhabit these communities are the northern green anole (Anolis
carolinensis carolinensis) and northern fence lizard* (Sceloporus undulates hyacinthinus).
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Both of these species are insectivores and are often seen sunning themselves on stumps, logs,
and fences.
Some animals prefer moist to wet meadows and other wet grassy environments. Wet
meadows are found in floodplains or other low-lying regions. They often contain thick
herbaceous vegetation and a diverse and plentiful insect communiry, thus supporting both
herbivores and omnivores. The mammals present in this type of ecosystem include the
meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus), meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius), and
the southern bog lemming (Synaptomys cooperi). The meadow vole resides in runways they
build on the ground surface within thick grasses. These grasses also comprise their primary
diet; however, they are known to eat insects. A similar omnivorous diet is shared by the
meadow jumping mouse. This mouse constructs nests of grass and leaves underground for
hibernation during the winter months. In contrast to the meadow vole and meadow jumping
mouse, the southern bog lemming is a strict herbivore feeding on succulent grasses and
sedges present in this moist environment. Similar to the meadow vole, this lemming resides
m grassy runways.
The numerous small rodent population present in this open and moist environment attracts the
attention of predatory birds. The broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus) is a good example
of an opportunistic predatar present in this environment. This hawk perches and nests in
large trees or utility poles that overlook relatively large areas in quiet search for food. Other
non-predatory birds also thrive in this environment due to a wide array of food and man-made
structures for nesting and perching. These birds include the eastern towhee* (Pipilo
erythrophthalmus), red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), and Carolina wren*
(Thryothorus ludovicianus). The eastern towhee consumes a wide array of grasses present in
this moist environment, while the Carolina wren eats the insects present on these grasses.
The opportunistic red-winged blackbird feeds upon both the plant material and insects
available. This gregarious bird is often observed singing from a perch atop shrubbery in a
marsh or along the edge of a stream or river.
3.9.2.3 Early �cces�sonal Forest Habitats
The early successional forest community contains dense shrubby vegetation and young trees
and is found on areas of abandoned farmland, logged lands, or forests regenerating from
natural disturbance. Animals that utilize these successional areas will also tend to utilize the
transition zone from primarily open, grassy environments into forested environments. The
smoky shrew (Sorex,fumeus) is likely to occur in this environment. It is a carnivore that takes
advantage of its environment by feeding on salamanders, insects, centipedes, and
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earthworms. For cover, this shrew nests in the leaves and other organic matter on the forest
floor.
Another mammal often found in the early successional forest community and forested edges
is the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). These animals are most active at night and tend to avoid areas
with regular human activity, with the exception of roadways. The food and cover available
along the open forest and field edges is what attracts these mammals to these ecosystems.
The wild turkey* (Meleagris gallopavo) is good example of a bird species that utilizes this
environment between the immature early successional forests and mature mixed
pine/hardwood forests. This bird was hunted to the point of near extirpation several decades
ago; now the wild turkey has seen a large increase in its population due primarily to extensive
wildlife management and restoration efforts. These efforts ha�e allowed the wild turkey to
once again become a somewhat common sight and major game species. It primarily feeds on
vegetable matter plentiful in cutovers, fields, along utility easements, and along roadways;
however, it is known to feed on insects, frogs, lizards, and nuts such as acorns found in more
mature woodlands. The nest of the wild turkey consists of a few dead leaves and twigs on the
ground beneath thick shrubbery.
3.9.2.4 Alluvial/Bottomland Forest Habitats
In general, the lowest-elevation forested natural community is alluvial/bottomland forest
community. While water bodies including, streams, ponds, and lakes are found throughout
most of the ecosystems within the study area, the alluvial/bottomland forest community is
unique to the floodplains of the larger stream and river courses. This natural community
provides a bounry of food and dense cover for small and large animals to thrive. Animals
residing in these areas must in turn cope with the periodic flooding characteristic of this
vegetative community type. Most of these animals fear humans and adapt poorly to a
changing environment caused by human activity.
Mammals accustomed to life partially spent in water include the beaver (Castor canadensis),
muskrat (Ondata zibethicus), mink (Mustela vison), and northern river otter (Lutra
canadenis). These animals were prized for their pelts and trapped extensively by early
European residents of the region. The beaver was exterminated from the area in the early
1900s; however, recently a few dams have been observed in GSMNP along Noland Creek,
Hazel Creek, the Oconaluftee River, Deep Creek, and Abrams Creek. They are voracious
herbivores, eating grasses, aquatic plants, and corn, as well as the soft tissue just below the
bark of trees. These industrious rodents are capable of altering forests in the vicinity of their
home stream by felling numerous trees to construct a dam. These dams block water in
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streams, ultimately flooding areas outside the stream banks and creating ponds. Beavers then
build ]odges of logs, sticks, and mud along the edge of tbese ponds for cover and protection;
however, in GSMNP most lodges are found in the stream banks. In contrast, the herbaceous
muskrat is smaller in size relative to the beaver and they do not construct dams. They build a
lodge along the edges of existing stream banks or beaver impoundment. Their lodges consist
of aquatic vegetation, mud, small sticks, and other debris.
Unlike the beaver and muskrat, mink are carnivorous, feeding on fish, frogs, crustaceans,
birds, and small mammals. Mink are known to use abandoned dens of beaver and muskrat or
make their own in hollow logs. In addition, the study area is host to the large, semiaquatic
northern river otter. This mammal was heavily trapped and exterminated from the park by
1927. In the mid-eighties a reintroduction effort began and was completed in 1994 with a
total release of 137 otters. Otters feed primarily on slow moving fish such as suckers, carp,
and catfish, but are also known to eat crayfish, crabs, amphibians, and other aquatic
organisms.
The moist environment of the alluviaUbottomland forest community is ideal for salamanders
and other amphibians, and most are associated with small streams and seepages. The Great
Smoky Mountains are known to contain approximately 30 species of salamanders.
Salamanders tend to hide during the day under rocks and logs and forage for insects (both
aquatic and terrestrial), crustaceans, worms, and other organisms along the forest floor and in
streams at night. Salamanders are often confused with lizards, a group of reptilian species.
However, a salamander's skin lacks scales, their toes have no claws, and a clear jelly
surrounds their eggs. Lizards, on the other hand, have scales, claws on their toes, and dry,
leathery eggshells. Salamanders such as the red spotted newt* (Notophthalmus viridescens
viridescens), Jordan's salamander (Plethodon jordani), three-lined salamander (Eurycea
guttolineata), Blue Ridge two-lined salamander (E. wilderae), seal salamander
(Desmognathus monticola), Ocoee salamander* (D. ocoee), and seepage salamander (D.
aeneus) are some of the species that may exist within the alluvial/bottomland forest
community within the study area. The red spotted newt is the only salamander listed that
spends its juvenile life in wooded areas adjacent to streams and its adulthood as an aquatic in
streams. Information regarding salamanders will be updated in the DEIS.
Other amphibians such as the American toad* (Bufo americanus) and Fowler's toad* (B.
woodhousii fowleri) may also be present in these communities. 1'he American toad can be
found in moist woods and shallow pools of water, while Fowler's toad is usually found in
sandy areas of river valleys. Both of these toads, as well as all adult amphibians, are
carnivorous and are known to feed on insects and other small invertebrates. Terrestrial
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amphibians tend to reside beneath rocks or leaf litter, wbile the aquatic amphibians live
within the water bodies along roots or rocks.
The alluvial/bottomland forest community includes reptiles that require constant interaction
with a water source. Snakes often present in this environment include the northern water
snake (Nerodia sipedon), queen snalce (Regina septemvittata), and northern rough greensnake
(Opheodrys aestivus aestivus). These snakes are known to forage on small fish, salamanders,
frogs, and insects. The northern water snake and queen snake typically are found beneath
rocks in streams; however, the northern rough greensnake is rarely found beneath rocks,
preferring instead to reside clutching to shrubs. The most ancient of all living reptiles are
turtles, which are generally omnivorous and found in or near water. Turtles are reptiles, thus
they lay hard, shelled eggs that are deposited on dry land. Turtle species that are likely to be
found within the study area include the snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina), and eastern
spiny softshell (Apalone spinifera spinifera).
Birds that feed on aquatic or semi-aquatic animals such as fish, insects, mollusks, and snails
tend to remain entirely within the alluvial/bottomland forest community. Common species
include the green heron (Butorides virescens), belted kingfisher* (Ceryle alcyon), and
Louisiana waterthrush (Seiurus �notacilla). These birds construct nests on or near the ground
from available vegetation material. Also present within this vegetation community, but in a
somewhat different role, is the American woodcock (Scolopax minor). Living within large,
dense alluvial areas, the American woodcock feeds on earthworms, slugs, insects, and seeds.
This secretive game species constructs well-hidden nests using twigs and dried leaves. A bird
that is found near open water is the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Eagles are
becoming a common site along the shores of Fontana Lake. This protected raptor is thought
to be establishing a breeding population in the area.
3.9.2.5 Mixed F)ne/Hardwood Forest, Fine Forest, and Upland Hardwood Forest Habitats
At a slightly higher elevation the alluvial forests grades upward to a drier forested
community. These drier forested community types include the mixed pine/hardwood forest,
pine forest, and upland hardwood forest communities. Though this ecosystem may contain
mid-elevation small streams, flooding would be unexpected due primarily to the headwater
nature of this ecosystem. High elevation ridges and knolls dominated by mast-producing
trees are common. The unique feature of this environment is its large contiguous forested
areas, which are critical to interior species. Though evidence of past human activity can be
found, these areas ha�e been left relatively unmanaged (in the classical sense) for many years.
As a result, these interior species found here adapt poorly to unnatural influences in their
ecosystems.
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Squirrels, including the red squirrel (Tamiascurius hudsonicus) and the southern flying
squirrel (Glaucomys volans), are common because of the dominance of large pine and mast-
producing trees with an open understory. Hollow trunks often associated with mature forests
provide the red squirrel with locations for dens. Also available is a relatively constant supply
of pine nuts, acorns, and other nuts from hardwood trees. Like the red squirrel, the southern
flying squirrel will build nests in tree cavities, but is also known to nest on limbs or in
abandoned nests of other animals. They feed on acorns, nuts, and seeds as well as insects,
eggs, and carrion. Another small mammal found in this environment is the eastern woodrat
(Neotoma floridana). The eastern woodrat prefers the steep, moist slopes this environment
offers to construct nests for protection from predators, and is a native herbivore feeding on a
wide range of plant material.
In contrast, the European wild hog* is non-native species thought to have entered GSMNP
during the 1940s. They have since dispersed and hybridized with feral domestic pigs. The
hogs can be found at all elevations and in a variety of habitats and can reach up to 3 feet (0.9
m) in height and weigh over 400 pounds (180 kg). These wild hogs are omnivorous and tend
to eat acorns during the fall, winter, and spring and foliage, roots, and herbs during the spring
and summer. They also will eat invertebrates and small vertebrates like salamanders all year.
The few predators known to prey on the hogs include bobcats, black bears, and coyotes. In
order to decrease the population in the park, trapping and shooting of the wild hog began in
1959. Since 1959, more than 10,000 wild hogs have been removed from GSMNP.
Reptiles that occur in these mid to high elevation environments are often found in multiple
vegetative communities. However, a few are exclusive to contiguous forest habitat; one of
the best examples is the northern ring snake (Diadophis punctatus edwardsii). The northern
ring snake spends its life eating salamanders, earthworms, and frogs that reside beneath rocks
and logs. Other snake species that could be encountered include the eastern worm snake
(Carphophis amoenus amoenus) and northern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix mokasen).
The eastern worm snake lives in shallow burrows, and earthworms comprise the bulk of their
diet. Northern copperheads, by contrast, enjoy the plentiful amounts of mice, lizards,
amphibians, and insects found in this environment. In the spring and fall these venomous
snakes tend to aggregate near century-old den sites found in the steep portions of this
environment. Lizards found within the southeastern United States enjoy this type of wooded
environment and feed primarily on insects. They tend to live in warm habitats using the sun
to warm their bodies. The nine lizard species known to occur in the Great Smoky
Mountainss are found at fairly low elevations. Two lizard species that are likely to be
observed in the study area include the common fiv�lined skink* (Eumeces fasciatus) and
broadhead skink (E. laticeps). A final reptile species found in forested co�nmunities is the
eastern box turtle� (Terrapene carolir�a carolina). This is the only turtle found in the region
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with a hinged shell that allows it to fit the upper and lower shells into a tight box. Box turtles
can live to the remarkably old age of at least fifry years. They are omnivores eating a variety
of plant and animal materia] including berries, mushrooms, insects, snails, earthworms, and
carrion.
Bird species such as the barred owl (Strix varia) that require deep, unfractured forests are
likely to be found in this environment. This inquisitive owl is active day or night. It mainly
consumes rodents and other small animals. They reside primarily in hollow logs and in the
abandoned nests of hawks and crows. Other bird species known to require this type of
environment include the veery (Catharus fuscescens), northern parula (Parula americana),
black-throated green warbler* (Dendroica virens), black-throated blue warbler* (Dendroica
caerulescens), blackburnian warbler (Dendroica.fusca), scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea),
and wood thrush* (Hylocichla mustelina). These insectivares generally use the tall mature
trees to construct their nests in for protection. Ruffed grouse* (Bonasa umbellus) is the best
example of a game species present within this unfractured, interiar forest environment. This
quick bird builds nests immediately below the ground surface and feeds primarily on
vegetable matter.
The relatively undisturbed, contiguous nature of the forests contained within GSMNP and
Nantahala National Farest offer optimal habitat conditions for neotropical migrant birds.
Neotropical migrants are those birds that breed in North America in the warmer seasons and
migrate to Central and South America in the colder seasons. In recent years there has been a
population decline in these migrants, which is thought to be associated with increasing farest
fragmentation of eastern deciduous forests of North America and deforestation of tropical
forests. The neotropical migrants breeding in North America tend to have a short breeding
season, small clutch size, and open nests that are on or near the ground. This breeding
behavior and increasing forest fragmentation and defarestation has left the migrants
susceptible to predation and nest parasitism (Robbins ] 989). The brown-headed cowbird
(Molothr�us ater) is the commonly noted species when discussing the threat of nest parasitism.
The cowbird is a common species in the project study area and is usually observed in grassy
fields and along woodland edges. However, because of the relatively infrequent occurrence
of cowbirds in the park compared with surrounding areas, the park is an i��nportant refuge
from cowbird parasitism for many songbirds, such as the neotropical migrants (DLIA 2003).
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3.9.3 Aquatic Wildlife
3.9.3.1 Fontana Lake
The quality and diversity of aquatic habitat in Fontana Lake and the streams within the
project study area are expected to be bigh due to the limited amount of disturbance in their
respective watersheds. The only readily observed land disturbances or land uses that could
affect water quality within the project study area are timber harvesting operations, agriculture,
individual housing construction, and trout farming. Detailed information concerning the
waters within the project study area is included in Section 3.7.
Sport fishing within both Fontana Lake and the numerous streams that empty into it has
become a major use by visitors to the area. Management of these fish resources is essential to
the continued survival of fish and the enjoyment of anglers. To achieve these goals, GSMNP,
Nantahala National Forest, and the state of North Carolina have set limits on daily takes and
have required licenses. Continued enforcement, though not an easy task, is needed to ensure
the survival of the primary game species actively hunted within GSMNP.
The open water environment found within Fontana Lake encourages the proliferation of
many types of fish. The major sport fish within Fontana Lake include smallmouth bass*
(Micropterus dolomieu), largetnouth bass* (M. salinoides), and walleye (Stizostedion
vitreum). Other fish present within Fontana Lake include gizzard shad (Dorosoma
cepedianum), muskellunge (Esox �nasquinongy), bluegill* (Lepomis macrochirus), common
carp (Cyprinus carpio carpio), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), and yellow perch*
(Perca flavescens). Though tbese fish are primarily found in Fontana Lake, they will venture
into the lower stream reaches.
Other major sport fish found in the larger study area streams and in Fontana Lake, are the
rainbow trout* (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta). These introduced fish
spawn in the cool, fast flowing streams then often travel back into open water. For the
rainbow trout, spawning season is in the spring, while the brown trout spawns in the fall.
Although many trout return to the open water after spawning, there are those who remain in
the streams if plentiful food and cover are available. This has made fly fishing for trout a
year round draw to the numerous streams feeding Fontana Lake. Rainbow, brown and brook
trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) are stocked by NCWRC in the following streams in the study
area: Panther Creek, Stecoah Creek, Deep Creek, and Alarka Creek. No trout are stocked in
GSMNP.
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Other aquatic species likely to be found in the study area include several of the previously
mentioned amphibian, reptilian, and mammal species. Salamanders, frogs, turtles, and
muskrat are a few of the taxa that inhabit both terrestrial and aquatic communities. Mollusk
species are known to occur in this portion of North Carolina; however, no mollusk shells
were observed.
3.9.3.2 Stream Habitats
The native brook trout is a resident in the smaller headwater streams within the study area.
Due to competition from the exotic rainbow and brown trout, and due to former farestry and
industrial activities, the brook trout populations saw major declines during the twentieth
century. Their numbers are low enough now that these fish are protected throughout
GSNINP. Other fish that may inhabit streams within the study area include mountain brook
lamprey (Ichthyomyzon greeleyi), central stoneroller (Cainpostorr�a anoinalu�n), warpaint
shiner (Lu�ilus coccogenis), river chub (Nocomis micropogon), Tennessee shiner (Not�opis
leuciodus), silver sbiner (N. photogenis), mirror shiner (N. spectrunculus), fatlips minnow
(Phenacobius crassilabr�um), black redhorse (Moxostoma duquesnei), rock bass (Ambloplites
rupestris), greenside darter (Etheostoma blennioides), greenfin darter (E. chlorobranchium),
gilt darter (Percina evides), longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae), creek chub* (Se�notilus
atr°omaculatus), northern hog sucker (Hypentelium nigricans), and mottled sculpin (Cottus
bairdi). All of the fish listed feed on a variery of living and organic matter including algae,
insects, worms, crustaceans, snails, and detritus.
Three aquatic amphibians that are likely to occur in the project study area include the
mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus maculosus), hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis), and
American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana). The mudpuppy and the hellbender are the only two
entirely aquatic salamanders known in GSMNP. Both the mudpuppy and American bullfrog
are likely to be found in lakes, ponds, and slow moving rivers and large streams. The
hellbender inhabits fast-flowing streams and rivers with rocky substrates and consumes
crayfish and aquatic insects.
Other aquatic species likely to be found in the study area include several of the previously
mentioned amphibian, reptilian, and mammal species. Salamanders, frogs, turtles, and
muskrat are a few of the taxa that inhabit both terrestrial and aquatic communities. Mollusk
species are known to occur in this portion of North Carolina; however, no mollusk shells
were observed.
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3.9.3.3 Aquatic Macroinvertebrates
Different aquatic macroinvertebrates can be found within the following zones of Fontana
Lake. The surface of the lake may have species such as water striders (Gerridae), whirligig
beetles (Gyrinidae), and mosquito larvae (Culicidae). In the shallow, open water or limnetic
zone, a few nektonic species are found that feed on plankton. Most aquatic
macroinvertebrates will be found in the near shore or littoral zone of the lake. The diversity
of species depends on the abundance of vegetation and difference in substrates. The deep,
open water or profundal zone is limited to few species. Aquatic macroinvertebrates that may
be found in Fontana Lake include Hexagenia sp., Ephemera sp., Chironomus sp., Tanytarsus
sp., and Megaloptera sp (Merrit and Cummins 1984).
Benthic macroinvertebrates are very abundant in the streams witbin the project study area,
especially within GSMNP. Macroinvertebrates are an important step in the food chain,
breaking down organic matter and feeding on living plants within the stream and providing
food for numerous fish found in the streams. NCDWQ (2002) found over 186 species of
macroinvertebrates in the streams within the project study area. Some common species likely
to occur include Baetis tricaudatus, Epeorus rubidus, and Stenonema pudicum from the
Ephemeroptera Order (mayflies); Acroneuria abnorn2is, Leuctra spp., and Tallaperla spp.
From the Plecoptera Order (stoneflies); and Brachycenti^us spinae, Neophylax consimilis, and
Rhyacophila fuscula from the Trichoptera Order (caddisflies). Numerous chironomids
(Chironomidae Family) most likely occur in all streams. Several species from the taxa of
Diptera, Oligochaeta, Crustacea, Pelecypoda, Gastropoda, Odonata, and Megaloptera will
also be present.
According to The Nature Conservancy and the Association for Biodiversity Information in
Precious Heritage: The Status of Biodiversity in the United States (2000), the southern
Appalachian Mountains are renowned as one of the nation's six biological hot spots . These
six areas are classified as biological hot spots due to the richness and relative rarity of the
species that inhabit each area. The diversiry of freshwater organisms, including fishes and
mussels, contribute greatly to the biodiversity of the southern Appalachians. The Tennessee
River system, which includes the project study area, is noted as the nation's most biologically
diverse drainage system, and one river basin within the Tennessee River System is noted as
being home to more species of fishes than the continent of Europe. Another river in the
Tennessee River system flows through these mountains in southwestern Virginia and
northeastern Tennessee and is home to at least 29 rare mussels and 19 rare fish. The
biodiversiry of cav�dwelling invertebrates is also significant in these mountains. More than
30 species new to science have been discovered in the natural underground caves in the
region in the past few years. These mountains are also recognized as the world's center for
Indicatesevidence or direct sghtingsof speciesduring field reconnaissance.
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salamander diversity. Imperiled groups in the southern Appalachian Mountains include
species of freshwater mussels, fishes, cave invertebrates, plants, and amphibians.
3.9.4 Invasve 6cotic�ecies
A variety of animal and plant species inhabit the project study area. While the majoriry of
those species are native to the region there are a few that have been introduced by man. The
introduced species are referred to as exotics. Most of the exotic species are harmless and
cause no real concern. However, there are those exotic species that have become invasive
and negatively impact native animal and plant communities. The impacts caused by the
invasive exotics include a decrease in biodiversity, a disturbance to or elimination of habitat
for rare and endangered species as well as for native species, and an alteration of the
relationship between native animal and plant communities (Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant
Counci12001).
Five types of invasive exotics are aquatic animals, terrestrial animals, forest insects, terrestrial
plants, and forest diseases. Accarding to the TVA, the invasive exotic aquatic animals likely
to occur in this region include common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Asiatic clam (Corbicula
fluininea) (undated memo). The TVA also noted the following terrestrial animals as invasive
exotics: the European boar, European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), house sparrow (Passer
domenticus), and rock dove (Columba livia). As noted in the pervious section, the European
hog is a major pest in GSMNP and significant efforts are made to control its populations.
Other invasive terrestrial animals of concern are the house mouse and Norway rat.
Exotic forest insects include tbe balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae), the hemlock woolly
adelgid (Adelges tsugae), Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus), and gypsy moth
(Lymantria dispar). The hemlock woolly adelgid is a new, significant threat to hemlock trees
in the Southern Appalachians. It was first spotted in these mountains in 2002, although it has
been in the United States for many years. This small insect can kill an adult hemlock tree
within two years of infestation. Major efforts and research are ongoing across the region to
control the spread of this insect.
According to GSMNP (1989), 98 percent of the area covered by invasive exotic plant species
in disturbed areas of GSMNP backcountry are accounted for by the following eight species:
English ivy (Hedera helix), air-potato (Dioscorea batatas), periwinkle (Vinca minor),
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), tall fescue (Festuca elatior), sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza
cuneata), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), and Nepalgrass (Microstegium
vimineum).
Indicatesevidence or direct sghtingsof speciesduring field reconnaissance.
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The National Park Service (2003d) mapped the locations of exotic plant species occurring
within the GSMNP. Those species found in the GSMNP portion of the project study area
include the common mullein (Verbascum thapsus), Japanese honeysuckle, kudzu (Pueraria
montana), mimosa(Albizia julib�issin), multiflora rose, Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus
orbiculatus), princess tree (Paulownia tomentosa), Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense),
periwinkle, white poplar (Pop�ulus alba), and wisteria (Wisteria floribunda).
Additionally, invasive exotic forest diseases threaten the native vegetation in the study area.
These diseases include chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica), Dutch elm disease
(Ophistoma ulmi), butternut canker (Sirococcus clavigigner�ti juglandaceaerum), beech bark
disease (Nect�ia coccinea faginata), and dogwood anthracnose (Discula destrictiva).
3.9.5 Protected �ecies
3.9.5.1 FederallyPl-otected �ecies
Some populations of fauna and flora have been or are in
the process of decline due to either natural forces ar their
inability to coexist with humans. Federal law (under the
provisions of Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act
[ESA] of 1973, as amended) requires that any action
likely to adversely affect a species classified as federally
protectedbe subject to review by the USFWS. Other Bog Turtie
species may receive additional protection under separate
laws. As of February 18, 2003, the USFWS identified four Endangered (E) species, one
Threatened (T) species, and one species tbreatened due to similarity of appearance (T[S/A])
as potentially occurring in Graham County. As of February 25, 2003, the USFWS had
identified seven Endangered species and three Threatened species as potentially occurring in
Swain Counry. Table 28 lists these federally protected species, their status, the county where
they are listed, and whether a review of GSMNP and/or North Carolina Natural Heritage
Program (NCNHP) maps of known populations of these federally protected species identified
populations within or near the project study area. Descriptions of these species and their
habitats are discussed below. Figure 18 depicts the best estimate of potential habitat in the
study area for each of these federally protected species. No surveys in the study area have
been conducted to date for these federally protected species. Investigations regarding these
species will be determined in consultation with the USFWS once detailed study corridars
have been selected far evaluation in the DEIS.
Indicatesevidence or direct sghtingsof speciesduring field reconnaissance.
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Table 28
Federally Protected S�ieaesKnown from Graham and 9wain Counties, North Carolina
Scientific Name Common Name
Vertebrates
Clemmysmuhlenbergii Bog turtle
Glaucomyssabrinus Carolina northern
coloratus flying squirrel
Felis concolor couguar Eastern cougar
Myotissodalis Indiana bat
Gyprinella (=Hybopss) �otfin chub
monacha
Invertebrates
Alasmidonta raveneliana Appalachian elktoe
Microhexura montivaga �ruc�fir moss spider
Patera darki nantahala Noonday globe
F�gias fabula Littl�wing
pearlymus9el
Federal State Habitat Identified In or
Status Status COUnty Available Near Projed
Area
T(S�A) T
E E
E E
E E
T T
G Yes
G, S Yes
S Yes
G, S Yes
S Yes
�
Yes� �
No
Yes
E E G, S Yes Yes
E SR S No No
T T S Yes No
E E S Yes No
Vascular Plants
�iraea virginiana vrginia spiraea T E G, S Yes
Nonvasaalar Plants
Gymnoderma lineare R�dc gnome lichen E T G, S Yes
Notes: E— Endangered SR— State Rare
T— Threatened T(S�A) — Threatened Due to 9milarity of Appearanoe
G—Graham County S-9✓vain County
* Fbpulations of these species have been identified in the project s#udy area or within a 2-mile (32-km)
radius of the project study area as reported by the NCNHP.
*� Cougars, according to NPSbiologists, are not currently known to oaxir in the G3v1NPportion of the
project studyarea. The las# known documented sghting, based on U�INSand NCNHPrecords, was
over 20 years ago.
148
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3.9.5.1.1 Vertebrates
Bog Turtle (Clemmys muhlenbergii)
Federal Status: THREATENED (SIMILAR APPEARANCE)
State Status: THREATENED
GRAHAM COUNTY
Bog turtles are small (3 to 4.5-inch [7.6 to 11.4 cin]) reptiles with a weakly keeled carapace
(upper shell) that ranges in color from light brown to ebony. This species is easily
distinguished from other turtles by a large, conspicuous, bright orange to yellow blotch on
each side of its head. Bog turtles are semi-aquatic and inhabit muddy, bog-like habitats.
They can be found during the spring mating season from June to July and at other times from
April to October when the humidity is high and temperatures are in the 70s. Bog turtle
habitat consists of bogs, swamps, marshy meadows, and other wet environments, specifically
those that exhibit soft muddy bottoms.
In November 1987 the northern population of the bog turtle (from New York south to
Maryland) was listed as federally threatened, and the southem population (from Virginia
south to Georgia) was listed as federally threatened due to similarity of appearance.
Therefore, the southern populations are not protected under Section 7 of the ESA; however,
the T(S/A) designation bans the collection and interstate or intemational commercial trade of
bog turtles from the southern population. In addition to its official status as T(S/A), the
USFWS considers the southern population of the bog turtle as a Federal Species of Concern
(FSC) due to habitat loss (Russo 2000).
Habitat is available in the Graham County portion of the project study area, along the
floodplains of the numerous streams.
Carolina northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus colo�atus)
Federa] Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: ENDANGERED
GRAHAM AND SUVAIN COUNl1ES
Carolina northern flying squirrels are nocturnal mammals. This squirrel measures about 10 to
12 inches (25.4 to 30.5 cm), with the broad, flattened tail accounting for nearly half its total
length. They have a large fold of fully haired skin that runs from the front legs to the hind
legs, enabling the squirrel to glide. This squirrel is found in the western regions of the state,
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E�cisting Conditions
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typically in the transition zone between high elevation coniferous forests and mature northern
hardwood forests. The optimal transition zone contains forests that are moist with mature,
widely spaced trees and an abundance of snags. These regions usually occur above 4,500 feet
(1,371.6 meters) msl. The Carolina northern flying squirrel nests in ca�ities of hardwood
trees through the winter and in leaf nests on tree branches through the summer (Russo 2000).
A survey for the Carolina northern flying squirrel was conducted from 1987 to 1989 in
GSMNP. During the 2-year study, seven trapping locations were established approximately
10 miles (16 km) northeast of the project study area. Seven squirrels were captured,
including one recapture, and all were trapped in similar habitats that consisted of high
altitude, mixed forests of spruce-fir and northern hardwoods (Weigl 1990). A more recent
survey conducted by the NCWRC (2003) resulted in seven captured squirrels in areas
approximately ] 0 to 25 miles (16 to 40 km) northeast of the project study area boundary.
Suitable habitat for the Carolina northern flying squirrel is located in the project study area.
Elevations exceeding 4,500 feet (1,371.6 meters) msl with northern hardwood vegetation
occur north of Fontana Lake along Welch Ridge. However, there are no documented
populations of this species by either GSMNP or the NCNHP within a two-mile (3.2-km)
radius of the project study area.
Eastern Cougar (Puma concolor couguar)
Federal Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: ENDANGERED
SINAIN COUNTY
The eastern cougar is described as a large, unspotted, long-tailed cat. Its body and legs are a
uniform fulvous or tawny hue and its belly is pale reddish or reddish-white. The inside of this
cat's ears are light-colored, with a blackish color behind the ears. Cougars feed primarily on
deer, but their diet may also include small mammals, wild turkeys, and occasionally domestic
livestock. Cougars begin breeding when 2 or 3 years old and breed thereafter once every 2 to
3 years. A typical litter size is three, with the newborn kittens weighing 8 to 16 ounces (272
to 454 grams).
The primary habitat appears to be large wilderness areas with an adequate food supply.
Cougars avoid human-developed areas and have been considered by some as extirpated for
this reason. Male cougars typically occupy a range of 25 or more square miles (65+ ]�z�
and females from 5 to 20 square miles (13 to 52 km�). Sightings have been reported in three
North Carolina areas, including Nantahala National Forest, the northern portion of Uwharrie
National Farest, and the state's southeastern counties. The reinaining population of this
species is extremely small, with exact numbers unknown (USFWS 2001 a).
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Suitable habitat for the eastern cougar is available in the project study area due to the large
expanse of relatively undeveloped lands in GSMNP and Nantahala National Forest. A
record of a cougar sighting was documented by GSMNP and/or NCNHP approximately 1.5
miles (2.4 km) from the project study area in the area delimited by the USGS Bryson City
7.5-minute quadrangle map. NCNHP records indicate that the species was last observed in
Swain Counry over 20 years ago. The species is believed to be extirpated from the county.
Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis)
Federal Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: ENDANGERED
:_._u _►� `�: � • ► 1�
The Indiana bat is a small flying mammal approximately 2 inches (5.1 cm) long, with a
wingspan that ranges from 9.5 to 10.5 inches (24.1 to 26.7 cm). They have mous�like ears, a
plain nose, dull grayish fur on the back and lighter cinnamon-brown fur on the belly. Typical
prey consists of flying insects available along river and lake shorelines, in the crowns of trees
in floodplains, and in upland forests. The life expectancy of the Indiana bat is approximately
15 years.
Indiana bats hibernate for the winter in limestone caverns and abandoned mines, usually near
water, and in large colonies. Hibernating individuals characteristically form large, compact
clusters of as many as 5,000 individuals (averaging 500 to 1,000 bats per cluster). The bats
roost during the summer months in snags or in shaggy-barked live trees near water and
exposed to the sun. T'hese "roost trees" can be found within riparian areas, bottomland
hardwoods, and upland hardwoods. Dead trees standing in sunny openings are attractive
because the air spaces and crevices under the bark are warmer.
Mating occurs from late August to early October prior to hibemation or in spring. Ovulation
talces place after the bats arouse in spring, and young are born in June and July. One young is
born to each mother, and they leave the roost approximately 30 days after birth.
During July 2000 mist net surveys for Indiana bats were conducted just southwest of GSMNP
near the border of North Carolina and Tennessee. The surveys resulted in the capture of three
Indiana bats at two sites. These sites were located approximately 6 miles (9.6 km) west of the
project study area. One of the sites bordered a pond along a forest edge and tbe other site was
an upland, forested area along the AT (Eco-Tech, Inc. 2000).
Suitable habitat for the Indiana bat is found within the study area. Vegetation adequate to
meet both their roosting and foraging needs is available throughout the study area along with
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caves needed for hibernation. There are no documented populations of this species by either
GSMNP or the NCNHP within a 2-mile (3.2-km) radius of the project study area.
Spotfin Chub (Cyprinella monacha)
Federal Status: THREATENED
State Status: THREATENED
SINAIN COUNTY
This small fish, approximately 2.6 to 4.2 inches (6.6 to 10.7 cm) long, has a slender, flattened
body with a long snout that extends over the mouth and a small barbel at the corner of the
mouth. Juveniles, females, and nonbreeding males have tan-, gray-, or oliv�colored backs,
bright silvery sides, and white bellies. The spotfin chub spawns from mid-May to early
September. Females deposit eggs in crevices between rocks, and males fertilize the eggs and
stay to defend the eggs by swimming repeatedly over the nest site. Most spotfin chubs reach
sexual maturity at 2 years of age and do not live past 3 years of age.
The spotfin chub inhabits clear water over gravel, boulders, and bedrock in large creeks and
medium-sized rivers having moderate current. The fish is rarely seen over sand, and this
species appears to avoid silty areas. The spotfin chub feeds by sight and taste on tiny insect
larvae that occur on tbe stream bottom. The spotfin chub is now restricted to a few tributary
systems of the Little Tennessee River drainage. Its habitat has been destroyed or seriously
altered due to impounded waters, forestry activities, and various waste inputs (Rohde, et al.
1994). In September 1977, the USFWS identified this fish as a threatened species and
designated critical habitat. The critical habitat includes the main stem of the Little Tennessee
River from the North Carolina-Georgia state line downstream to the backwaters of Fontana
Lake, a portion of which lies within the project study area.
In 1988 a program was established to reintroduce the spotfin chub to Abrams Creek in Blount
County, Tennessee. This project transported 250 chubs during October 1988 from the Little
Tennessee River upstream of Fontana Lake to Abrams Creek, upstream from Chilhowee
Lake. This relocation site is approximately 12 miles (19 km) west of the project study area.
The reintroduction efforts continued for the next 4 years.
Three occurrences of the spotfin chub have been documented by GSMNP and/or NCNHP in
or near the project study area. Two of the occurrences are located on the northern side of the
area delimited by the USGS Fontana Lake in the Noland Creek 7.5-minute quadrangle map.
The other occurrence is located approximately one mile (1.6 km) south of tbe project study
area in the area delimited by the USGS Wesser 7.5-minute quadrangle map.
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3 .9.5.1.2 Invertebrates
Appalachian Elktoe (Alasmidonta ravenaliana)
Federal Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: ENDANGERED
Ce 3._19_1 � F_1 � 1�I. .► J L' \ I�[� Zil � 1� � I I�
The Appalachian elktoe is a mollusk restricted to the far eastern portions of the Tennessee
River watershed. It inhabits streams with a sand and gravel bed substrate, a moderate flow,
and less than 3 feet (0.9 m) deep. The mussel remains attached underneath flat cobbles and
boulders. The shells are oblong, somewhat kidney-shaped, moderately inflated, and thin.
The anteriar margin is sharply rounded, the posterior margin is broadly rounded, and the
ventral and dorsal margins are nearly straight. The beak sculpture consists of a few heavy
straight or sligbtly double looped bars that terminate at the posterior ridge. The outside
surface is mostly smooth, interrupted by concentric growth circles. The outside color of the
shell varies from yellowish-brown to black, and the inside color of the shell varies fram
bluish-white to lavender (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
The USFWS finalized the designation of critical habitat areas for this mussel on September
27, 2002. In Graham County, the designated area includes the main stem of the Cheoah
River from Santeetlah Dam, downstream to its confluence with the Little Tennessee River.
In Swain County, the designated area includes the following river reaches: the main stem of
the Little Tennessee River from the Lake Emory Dam downstream to the backwaters of
Fontana Reservoir and the main stem of the Tuckasegee River from the Town of Cullowhee
to north of Bt-yson City. Portions of the Little Tennessee River and Tuckasegee River
designated as critical habitat for this species occur within the project study area.
Many of the streams in the project study area provide suitable habitat for the Appalachian
ellctoe. Two occurrences of this species have been documented by GSMNP and/or the
NCNHP near the project study area. One occurrence is located approximately 1.5 miles (2.4
km) east of the project study area in the area delimited by the USGS Bryson City 7.5-minute
quadrangle map. The other occurrence is located approximately l mile (1.6 km) south of the
project study area in the area delimited by the USGS Wesser 7.5-minute quadrangle map.
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Little-wing pearlymussel (Pegias fabula)
Federal Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: ENDANGERED
SWAIN COUNTY
The little-wing pearlymussel is a mollusk that is found in the drainage basins of the
Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. The shells are small, rarely exceeding 138 inches (3.5
cm) in length. The beak consists of hea�y, subconcentric ridges, these being most prominent
and persistent on the posterior ridges. The inside of the shells is whitish to salmon-colored.
The littl�wing pearlymussel inhabits cool, clear, high-gradient small to medium sized
streams. It is usually found lying on top of or partially imbedded in sand and fine gravel
between cobbles in only 6 to 10 inches (l 5 to 25 cm) of water, often in riffles. Host fish for
this mussel include the greenside darter (Etheostoma blennioides) and the emerald darter (E.
baileyi) (Parmalee and Bogan 1998).
No current populations are known to exist in North Carolina; however, there is an obscure
recard of a population in Cherokee County from more than 50 years ago. Even though this
mussel species is thought to be extirpated from North Carolina it inhabits much smaller
streams than most mussels and a population may still exist in North Carolina.
Suitable habitat consisting of cool, clear, high-gradient water bodies is available in most of
the smaller streams in the project study area. However, there are no documented occurrences
of the little-wing pearly�nussel within a 2-mile (3.2-km) radius of the project study area.
Noonday globe (Patera clarki nantahala)
Federal Status: THREATENED
State Status: THREATENED
SINAIN COUNTY
The noonday globe is a moderately sized land snail. It has a shiny red shell that is sculptured
with coarse lines. Tbe area around the shell opening is white with a long curved tooth located
on the inside portion of the opening. The noonday globe's body is black Little is understood
concerning the animal's diet; however, animals in this family typically feed on the subsurface
hairlike structures (mycelia) of fungi. The species appears to be most active during wet
weather when it is frequently found on the surface of vegetation rather than under the leaf
litter on the forest floor. The noonday globe is prey for many species including small rodents
and carnivorous land snails. Information concerning the reproductive habits of the noonday
globe has yet to be determined.
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E�cisting Conditions
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The noonday globe is restricted to a 2-mile (3.2-km) section of high cliffs within the
Nantahala Gorge in Swain County, North Carolina. The cliffs in this region are very wet and
intersected by many small streams and waterfalls. The forests are mature with a thick, rich
humus layer and exposed calcareous rocks. This population of snails has declined due to the
loss of the forest canopy at many locations in the Nantahala Gorge. This has allowed more
sunlight to penetrate the gorge and dried the lower slope of the gorge, thus significantly
altering their environment (USFWS 2000).
The Nantahala Gorge is located approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) south of the project study
area; however, suitable habitat far the noonday globe (moist steep cliffs) is present in the
project study area. There are no documented populations of this species by either GSMNP or
the NCNHP within a 2-mile (3.2-km) radius of the project study area.
Spruce-fir moss spider (Microhexura montivaga)
Federal Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: SIGNIFICANTLY RARE
SINAIN COUNTY
It is one of the smallest members of the primitive suborder of spiders that are often popularly
referred to as "tarantulas." Adults of this species measure only 0.10 to 0.15 inch (0.25 to 0.38
cm) with a yellow-brown to a darker reddish-brown color. The most reliable field
identification characteristics for the spnice-fir moss spider are chelicerae that project forward
well beyond the anterior edge of the carapace, a pair of very long posterior spinnerets, and the
presence of a second pair of book lungs, which appear as light patches posterior to the genital
furrow.
The spruc�fir moss spider is known from only Fraser fir (Abies.fraseri) and red spruce
(Picea rubens) forests on the highest mountain pealcs (at and above 5,400 feet [1,646 m] in
elevation) in the Southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. 1'he
typical habitat of this spider is found in damp but well-drained moss mats growing on rock
outcrops and boulders in well-shaded situations within these forests. The moss mats cannot
be too dry (the species is very sensitive to desiccation) or too wet (large drops of water can
also pose a threat to the spider). The spider constructs tube-shaped webs in the interface
between the moss mat and rock surface. The abundant springtails in the moss mats provide
the most likely source of food for the spider. Populations of the spruce-fir moss spider have
declined due in large part to the declining numbers of stands of Fraser fir and red spruce
forests (USFWS 1998).
According to the Federal Register on July 6, 2001, critical habitat for the spruce-fir moss
spider has been designated in portions of Avery, Caldwell, Mitchell, Swain, and Watauga
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E�cisting Conditions
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counties in North Carolina and became effective on August 6, 2001. These designated
critical habitats include areas within GSMNP, Pisgah National Forest, Cherokee National
Forest, and Grandfather Mountain (managed by TNC). The critical habitat area designated in
GSMNP lies several miles north of the project study area. The remainder of the critical
habitat areas are well outside the project study area.
In l 989 and 1990 a survey for the spruce-fir moss spider was conducted in GSMNP, and a
total of seven spiders were found.
Suitable habitat for the spruce-fir moss spider is not available in the project study area.
Neither the elevation nor the vegetation required for habitat is found in the project study area.
There are no documented populations of this species by either GSMNP or the NCNHP within
a 2-mile (3.2-km) radius of the project study area.
3.9.5.1 3 Vascular Plants
Virginia spiraea (Spiraea virginiana)
Federal Status: THREATENED
State Status: ENDANGERED
:_.:u ;�� ��:� • 1�
Virginia spiraea is a perennial shrub, 2 to ] 0 feet (0.6 to 3.0 m) tall with arching, upright
stems. The plants may grow alone or in dense clumps. The leaf shape rypically appears as a
narrow ellipse with a tapered base and a short bur at the end of the tip. The leaf margins are
entire to simply crenat�serrate. The underside of the leaf is smooth with a whitish bloom.
The flowers contain five white and very short petals and grow in flat-topped clusters at the
ends of a branching stalk. Flowering occurs June through July, and fruiting occurs through
September. The Virginia spiraea fruit is small, dry, smooth, and glossy. This plant grows in
sunny, flood-scoured, high-gradient rocky riverbanks; braided areas of lower stream reaches;
gorges; and canyons, as well as disturbed right-of-ways (Russo 2000).
The study area contains many high-velociry streams that could provide adequate sandy to
cobbled scour-area habitat. The study area also has many disturbed rights-of-way near
wetlands or streams that may also provide habitat for this plant. However, there are no
documented populations of this species by either GSMNP ar the NCNHP within a 2-mile
(3.2-km) radius of the project study area.
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3.9.5.1.4 Nonvascular Plants
Rock Gnome Lichen (Gymnoderma lineare)
Federal Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: THREATENED
GRAHAM AND S1NAW COUNl1ES
Rock gnome lichen consists of a dense colony of narrow, strap-like lobes, tbe tips of whicb
are blu�gray on the upper surface and usually shiny white below, with the color darkening to
black near the base of the lobes. The slightly branched lobes are less than 0.06 inch (0.15
cm) across, between 0.4 and 0.8 inch (1 to 2 cm) long, and grow parallel to the substrate with
tips that stand up almost erect. Fruiting occurs from July to September producing extremely
small, black or brown fruiting bodies, which occur at the tip of the lobes.
Rock gnome lichen occurs in areas of high humidity, either on high-elevation cliffs where
there is frequent fog or in deep river gorges at lower elevations. Most populations occur
above 5,000 feet (1,524 m) msl. It is priruarily ]imited to vertical rock faces that receive
infrequent seepage water and to streamside boulders in areas that receive a moderate amount
of light but not high-intensiry solar radiation (USFWS 2001 b).
The majority of the project study area is below 5,000 feet (1,524 m) in elevation. However,
some lower-elevation areas that may contain suitable habitat exist in tbe study area. Areas of
moist, steep rock faces exist, especially south of Fontana Lake. There are also many streams
in the study area that may provide tbe humid rock habitat this lichen requires. There are no
documented populations of this species by either GSMNP or the NCNHP within a 2-mile
(3.2-km) radius of the project study area.
3.9.5.2 Federal �eaes of Concern
There are 19 FSC listed by the USFWS for Graham County and 36 FSC for Swain Counry.
These species are not protected under the provisions of Section 7 of the ESA. FSC are
defined as species under consideration for listing for which there is insufficient information to
support listing as threatened or endangered (formerly C2 candidate species). The status of
these species may be upgraded at any time; therefore, they are included here for
consideration. Table 291ists the federal species of concern, their state status, where they are
protected, the existence of suitable habitat within the project study area, and whetber a review
of GSMNP and/or NCNHP maps of known populations of these federal species of concern
identified populations within or near the project study area. Information regarding these
species gathered during survey of the detailed study corridors will be incorporated into the
DEIS.
157
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 29
Federal Speaesof Conoern Known from Graham and 9wain Counties, North Carolina
Identified
Scientific Name Common Name �deral State �unt Habitat Available In or Near
Status Status y Requirements Habitat Project
Area* *
Vertebrates
Aegoliusacadicus Southern Appalachian F5C T G, S Transtion habitat Yes No
saw-whet owl
Clinostomus Little Tennessee f�ver F9C
funduloides s,�.1 rosyside daoe
Contopuscooperi' Oliv�sded flycatcher F5C
Corynorhinus f}afinesque's big-eared F5C
rafine�uii bat
Cryptobranchus Hellbender F5C
alleganiensis
Dendroica cerulea Cerulean warbler F5C
F rycea junalus�ca Junalu�ca salamander F5C
Loxia curvirostra Southern Appalachian F9C
red crossuill
0
�
T
.�7
�
T
��
Microtuschrotorrhinus �uthern rodc vole F9C 8C
carolinenss
Moxostoma �n. �cklefin redhorse F9C �(Pn
between spruoe-fir
and hardwood
forests
S Typically in small to Yes
medium streams
with dear to turbid
water and moderate
current.
S Hemlock and spruo� Yes
fir forests.
G, S Buildings, caves, Yes
mines, hollow trees,
or loose bark near
permanent water.
G, S Clear, fast-flowing Yes
streamsand rivers
with rodcy bottoms
G Mature hardwood Yes
forestswith open
understory
G Along streams No
within Cheoah Rlver
watershed
G, S Coniferous, mixed Yes
ooniferous-
deciduous, pine
savannas, and pine-
oak habitats.
S Fbdcy habitats Yes
within high
mountain forests or
open fields.
S Medium to large Yes
a-eeks and rivers
with a gravel,
cobble, or boulder
streambeds.
158
Yes
No
Yes
1'[�
Yes
No
�
No
Yes
E�cisting Conditions
North 9iore Road
Table 29 (Continued)
Federal �eaesof Conoern Known from Graham and 9inrain Counties, North
Carolina
Identified
Scientific Name Common Name �deral State �unt Habitat Available In or Near
Status Status y Requirements Habitat Project
Area*"
Myotisleibii Eastern small-footed F9C 9C S In hemlodc forests Yes No
myotis under boulders, in
rock crevices, and in
caves and mines.
Neotoma floridana 5outhern Appalachian F5C 8C S Talus slopes rodcy Yes Yes
haematoreia woodrat outcrops, bluffs,
diffs, crevicesor
caves
F�rana s�uamata Olive darter F5C 8C S Fast riffles in small to Yes Yes
medium-szed rivers
with gravel to
boulder streambeds
l�tuophis Northern pine snake F5C 8C G, S Fln�oak woodlands, Yes Yes
melanoleucus pine flatwoods, and
melanoleucus fields flatwoods,
Poecile atricapilla 9outhern Appalachian F9C 8C� G, S Nests in holes of Yes No
practica black-capped dead trees, near
chidcadee open areas.
Sorex palustris �uthern water shrew F5C 8C S In bogs or montane Yes No
pundulatus alluvial forests near
stream banks
�hyrapicus varius Southern Appalachian F9C 9C G, S Most wooded Yes No
appalachiensis yellow-bellied oommunity types
sapsudcer
9�Ivilagus Appalachian cottontail F5C 9� G, S Thidc cover of Yes No
transitionalis� mountain laurel,
rhododendron,or
blueberries in
coniferous forests.
Invertebrates
Fumonelix wheatleyi Clingman oovert3 F9C T S Clingmans Dome Yes No
dingmanicus� region of Great
9�noky Mountains
National Park
Macromia margarita Margarita Rlver F9C - S Moderate elevation, Yes No
skimmer high-quality streams
and rivers
Nesticus cooperi Lost Nantahala cave F5C SR S Caves and along Yes No
spider Nantahala f�ver
159
E�cisting Conditions
North 9iore Road
Table 29 (Continued)
Federal �eaesof Conoern Known from Graham and 9inrain Counties, North
Carolina
Identified
Scientific Name Common Name �deral State �unt Habitat Available In or Near
Status Status y Requirements Habitat Project
Area*"
Fhyciodesbatesii Tawnycre9cent F9C � G, S aevationsabove Yes Yes
maconensis 4,000 feet (1219.2
m) above msl
�eyeria diana Diana fritillary butterfly F9C S� G, S Hardwood and Yes Yes
mixed forests, and
fields
Vascular Rarrts
Abies fra�ri Fraser fir F5C - S Boreal forests and Yes No
balds above 4,500
feet (1371.6 m)
Buckleya distichophylla Rratebush F5C E S In hemlodc stands Yes No
on diffs or bluffs
Cardamine dematitis Mountain bittercress F5C Sf�T G, S In and along rodcy Yes No
streams
Desmodium Creamy tidc-trefoil F5C Sf�T S �ndy, open woods, Yes No
ochroleucum es{�ecially in dearings
Euphorbia purpurea Glade spurge F5C Sf�T G, S Low woodlands Yes No
Glyaeria nubigena 9�noky Mountain F5C T G, S �eepage areas. Yes No
mannagrass
,.Uglanscinerea Butternut F5C - G, S Well-drained soilsof Yes Yes
bottomlands and
floodplains
Monotropssodorata 9✓veet pinesap F9C �T S Mixed deciduous Yes No
woods
H.rgelia nudicaulis F3agel's ragwort F9C T S �ruo�fir forests Yes No
S�xifraga caroliniana Carolina saxifrage F5C 3�T G Fbdcy woods Yes Yes
Shortia galacifolia var Southern oconee bells F9C E 9C S On stream banks in Yes No
galacifolia rich woods
91ene ovata Mountain catchfly F9C �T S f�ch woods in NC Yes Yes
mountains
Tha�nium Mountain thaspium F9C �T S In forestsand Yes No
pinnatifidum woodlands with
calcareous bedrodc
1/accinium hirsutum Hairy blueberry F5C - G, S Deciduouswoodsat Yes No
high elevations
160
E�cisting Conditions
North 9iore Road
Table 29 (Continued)
Federal �eaesof Conoern Known from Graham and 9inrain Counties, North
Carolina
Scientific Name Common Name �deral State �unty Habitat
Status Status Requirements
Nonvascular Rarrts
Ragiochila sullivantii Liverwort
var. sullivantii
Porella wataugensis Liverwort
�henolobopsis Liverwort
pearsnnii
F5C 3�T
F5C 9�L
F5C FE
S On bark of Fraser firs
in spruc�fir forests
G �dcs in humid
gorges
S On bark of Fraser firs
in spruce-fir forests
Status: E— Endangered: A taxon which " is in danger of exgtinction throughout all or a sgnificant portion
of its range."
T—Threatened: A taxon " which is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable
future throughout all or a sgnificant portion of its range.
F5C — Federal �eaes of Concern: A taxon which may or may not be listed in the future (formerl;y
Federal C2 candidate species).
P— R�oposed 9C — State �ecies of Concern SR— State determined rare speaes.
County: G—Graham County S-9✓vain County
9,rnonym: 1 Contopus borealis
2 9�Ivilagusobs�urus
3 Me�don wheatleyi dingmanicus
* These F9C speaes have not been listed in Graham County by the NCNHP.
�� Fbpulations of these F� species are identified in the project study area or in a 2-mile (3.2-km) radius
of the project study area.
Source: U�NS2003 NCNHP2003
3.9.5.3 Additional FederallyPl�otected �eciesnof currentlylisted forGraham orSWain Counties
The following are federally protected species that have historic ranges included within the
study area ar are thought to be expanding their ranges into the study area. They are not
currently listed on either the USFWS or the NCNHP lists as being known from Graham or
Swain counties. The status of the species in the study area may change at any time, therefore
they are included here for consideration.
Identified
Available In or Near
Habitat Projed
Area*"
Yes No
Yes No
Yes
161
��
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Red wolf (Canis rufus)
Federal Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: ENDANGERED
The red wolf is a medium-sized canine that resembles both the coyote (Canis latrans) and the
gray wolf (C. lupus). The red wolf is distinguishable from ihe coyote by its larger and more
robust body, longer ears and legs, more pronounced tawny element in coloration, and coarser
pelage. The red wolf is smaller, has a more slender and elongated head, and has shorter and
coarser pelage than the gray wolf. Red wolves den in hollow tree trunks, stream banks, and
abandoned dens of other animals. Studies indicate that the wolves need 25 to 50 square miles
(65 to 130 km�) of contiguous area for their home ranges (USFWS 1993). Suitable habitat
far the species includes any area in the southeastern United States of sufficient size in heavy
vegetation that provides adequate food and water sources for survival. Food sources for the
species include small to medium-sized mammals that are available in abundance, particularly
rodents, rabbits, carrion, and occasionally whit�tail deer and livestock.
The Red Wolf Recovery Program's stated management goal was to conduct a pilot
reintroduction of the red wolf in GSMNP, with cooperation from the NPS, to evaluate the
feasibility of reestablishing this animal permanently (Schildwachter 1994). The pilot
reintroduction was performed in two phases. The first phase was a short-term release of two
pairs of adult red wolves into GSMNP that was intended to last for about a year (USFWS
1991). The second phase was to be pursued if the first phase had positive results and would
involve permanent reintroduction of red wolves into GSMNP. The first phase began in 1991,
and the decision to pursue the second phase was made in the fall of 1992 (GSMNP 1992). A
total of 37 red wolves were released into GSMNP, but the project was terminated in 1998 due
to the low survival rate of the pups born in the wild and the difficulty of keeping wolves in
GSMNP (DLIA 2003).
Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
Federal Status: THREATENED — proposed delisted
State Status: ENDANGERED
The mature bald eagle (usually 4+ years in age) can be identified by its large white head and
short white tail. The body plumage is dark-brown to chocolat�brown in colar. Bald eagles
can easily be distinguished from other birds by their flat wing soar. They are primarily
associated with large bodies of water where food is plentiful. Eagle nests are found in
proximity to water (usually within 0.5 mile [0.8 km]) with a clear flight path to the water, in
the largest living tree in an area, with an open view of the surrounding land. Human
162
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
disturbance can cause nest abandonment. The breeding season far the bald eagle begins in
December and January. Fish are the major food source, although forage items include coots,
herons, wounded ducks, and carrion.
For the last several years there have been regular sightings of bald eagles utilizing Fontana
Lake. It is believed that there may be a nesting site near the western end of the lake, possibly
in the vicinity of Pikey and Whiteside creeks. Surveys to locate the possible nest have not
been conducted.
As of July 6, 1999, this species was under consideration by the USFWS for a proposed de-
listing of its threatened status. However, this raptor will still be protected under the
Migratory Bird Treaty Act and the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, and populations
will continue to be monitored for at least another five years under provisions of the ESA.
Red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis)
Federal Status: ENDANGERED
State Status: ENDANGERED
The red-cockaded woodpecker (RCV� is 7 to 8 inches (18 to 20 cm) long with a wing span of
14 to 15 inches (35 to 38 cm). It is identified by plumage that is entirely black and white
except for small red streaks on the sides of the nape of the male. The bacic of the RCW is
black and white harizontal stripes and it has a large white cheek patch surrounded by a black
cap, nape, and throat. This woodpecker's diet is composed mainly of insects, including ants,
beetles, wood-boring insects, caterpillars, and corn ear worms, if available. About 16 to l 8
percent of the diet includes seasonal wild fruit (USFWS 2000).
The RCW is found in open pine forests in the southeastern United States. The RCW is
unique among woodpeckers because it nests exclusively in living pine trees. The RCW uses
open old growth stands of southern pines for foraging and nesting habitat. In the mountains,
the RCW prefers to forage and nest in shortleaf, Virginia, and pitch pines (Pinus echinata, P.
virginiana, and P. rigida) (Dimmick et al. 1980). A forest ideally should contain at least 50
percent pine and lacic a thick understory. These birds excavate nests in pines greater than 60
years old and contiguous with pine stands at least 30 years of age. The faraging range of the
RCW may extend 500 acres (200 ha) and must be contiguous with suitable nesting sites. In
good, well-stocked pine habitat, sufficient foraging substrate can be provided on 80 to 125
acres (32.4 to 50.6 ha).
Living pines infected with red-heart disease (Formes pini) are often selected for cavity
excavation because the inner heartwood is usually weakened. Cavities are located from 12 to
163
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
100 feet (3.6 to 30.3 m) above ground level and below live branches. These trees can be
identified by "candles," a large encrustation of running sap that surrounds the tree. Clusters
consist of one to many of these candle trees. 'The RCW lays its eggs in April, May, and June;
the eggs hatch approximately 38 days later. Most often, the parent birds and some of their
male offspring from previous years form a family unit called a group. Commonly, these
groups are comprised of tbree to five birds. Rearing the young birds becomes a shared
responsibility of the group. However, a single pair can breed successfully without the benefit
of the helpers.
Within GSMNP, the RCW has had a small presence since its discovery in the mid-1930s,
based on documented reports, but the species has not been common (Di�nmick et al. 1980).
Dimmick et al. searched approximately 30 percent of the most favorable habitat in the
southwestern portion of GSMNP, which encompassed a portion of GSMNP that is located in
Blount County, Tennessee (1980). Dellinger (1983) later searched the remaining portions of
the area of the most favorable habitat. The findings of Dimmick et al. along witb those of
Dellinger, detennined that one colony area exists within the area they searched. These
searches revealed only one active caviry tree, with a few inactive cavity trees nearby. The
limiting factor for the RCW in this portion of the site is reported to be a lack of suitable
colony and foraging habitat, as pure mature pine stands were not observed (Dimmick et al.
1980). The RCW was last known to nest in GSMNP in the 1980's (NPS 1997).
3.9.5.4 3ate-Pl�otected �ecies
In North Carolina, General Statutes 113-331 to 113-337, effective 1987, authorized the
NCWRC to develop a system to monitor and protect rare animal species in the state. The
Plant Protection and Conservation Act (Chapter ] 06, Article 19B; 202. ] 2-20222; of the
General Statutes of North Carolina), authorizes the North Carolina Department of Agriculture
to monitor and protect rare plant species in the state. While state laws do not normally apply
to a federal project, it is NPS policy "to inventory, monitor, and manage state and locally
listed species in a manner similar to its treatment of federally listed species, to the greatest
extent possible (NPS 2001 c). The NCNHP lists of May 2003 for Graham County identified
18 species receiving protection under state laws. The NCNHP lists of May 2003 for Swain
County included most of these species and additional ] 8 species receiving protection under
state laws. Information regarding these species gathered during survey of the detailed study
corridors will be incorporated into the DEIS. Table 301ists these species.
164
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 30
State Speaesof Conoern Known from 9inrain and Graham Counties, North Carolina
Federal State Habitat Identified In or
Scientific Name Common Name �atus Status COUnty Available Near Project
Area*
Vertebrates
Certhia americana
Crotalus horridus
Desmognathus aeneus
gheostoma vulneratum
F rycea longicauda
Hemidactylium s�utatum
Myotis �ptentrionalis
Noturus flavus
Sorex di�nar
Invertebrates
Alasmidonta viridis
Appalachina chilhoweensis
9liptio dilatata
Invertebrates (Cont.)
Fumonelix jonesana
Fus�onaia barnesana
Glyphyalinia junaluskana
Glyphyalinia pentadelphia
Haplotrema kendeighi
Helicodixus bonamicus
Helicodis�us fimbriatus
Inflectarius ferriss
Lampslis fas�iola
Pallifera hemphilli
Paravitrea dappi
Brown Creeper
Timber R�ttlesnake
Seepage �alamander
Wounded Darter
Longtail �alamander
Four-toed �lamander
Northern Myotis
�onecat
I�ng-tailed 9irew
8ippershell Mussel
Queen Crater
�ike
�g-tooth Covert
Tennessee Rgtoe
Dark Glyph
Rnk Glyph
Blu�footed Lancetooth
�iral Coil
Fringed Coil
9�noky Mountain Covert
Wavy-rayed Lampmus9el
Bladc Mantle�ug
M irey f�dge �percoil
�� �
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
E
�
.f
.�,
.f
.�
.�,
.�
.�,
.�,
.�,
.�
9✓vain
S� G
Graham
9✓vain
Graham
Graham
S, G
9�vain
9✓vain
9✓vain
S, G
9✓vain
9✓vain
9�vain
�G
S� G
9✓vain
S, G
Graham
9✓vain
9✓vain
9✓vain
9✓vain
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
165
Table 30 (Continued)
State �ieaes of Conoern Known from 9wain and Graham Counties, North
Carolina
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Federal State Habitat Identified In or
Scientific Name Common Name �atus Status COUnty Available Near Project
Area*
Paravitrea lacteodens Ramp Cove �percoil - 8C Graham Yes Yes
Paravitrea lamellidens Lamellate Ripercoil - 8C S,G Yes No
Paravitrea placentula Glossy �percoil - 8C 9�vain Yes No
Paravitrea umbilicaris Open �percoil - 9C Graham Yes Yes
Patera darki Dwarf Roud Globe - 9C �G Yes No
Stenotrema depilatum Great 9noky 9itmouth - 8C �G Yes No
�llosa iris I�ainbow - 8C 9✓vain Yes Yes
Zonitoides patuloides Appalachian Gloss - 8C 9�vain Yes No
Vascxalar Rants
Gystopteris tenness�ensis Tennessee Bladder-fern - E 9C Graham
Hydrastiscanadenss Goldenseal - E8C 9✓vain Yes
llex collina Long-stalked Holly - T 9✓vain Yes
Trichomanespetersii Dwarf Flmy-fern - T Graham Yes
Nonvascular Plants
Schlotheimia lancifolia Highlands Moss - T Graham Yes
Status: E— Endangered: A taxon which " is in danger of exgtinction throughout all or a sgnificant
portion of its range."
T—Threatened: A taxon " which is likely to become an endangered speaes within the
foreseeable future throughout all or a sgnificant portion of its range.
F5C — Federal �ecies of Concern: A taxon which may or may not be listed in the future (formerl;y
Federal C2 candidate species).
P— Roposed 9C — 3ate �ecies of Concern g2— 3ate determined rare species.
County: G—Graham County S-9✓vain County
� Fbpulations of these speaes are identified in the project study area or in a 2-mile (3.2-km) radius of
the project study area.
Source: U�1NS2003 NCNHP2003
No
Yes
No
No
No
166
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.9.5.5 R�opo�d, 6�dangered, Threatened, and Sensitive �ecies
The Proposed, Endangered, Threatened, and Sensitive (PETS) Species List was developed by
the U.S. Forest Service for each of the national forests. The PETS list for Nantahala National
Forest includes 468 species of animals and plants. However, only 20 species are noted in this
report. The 20 species were included because they were documented in Nantahala National
Forest only and are listed on either the Graham or Swain County NCNHP list or the USFWS
Endangered and Threatened list. Table 31 lists these PETS species, their designation, global
ranking, the county where they are listed, and whether a review of NCNHP maps of known
populations of these species identified populations within or near the project study area.
Table 31
�ement Oocurrenoes of Protected, Endangered, Threatened, and Sensitive (PETS) �eaes
in Graham and/or 9inrain County, North Carolina
Scientific Name
Vertebrates
Desmognathus santeetlah
Firrycea junalus�ca
Myotis sodalis
Rethodon aureolus
Invertebrates
Glyphyalinia junaluskana
Glyphyalinia pentadephia
Haplotrema kendeighi
Helicodis�us bonamicus
Helicodis�us fimbriatus
Paravitrea ladeodens
Paravifriea umbilicaris
Patera darki darki
Zonitoides patuloides
Common Name
�nteetlah dusky salamander
Junaluska salamander
Indiana Bat
Tellico salamander
Dark glyph
(Ank glyph)
Blu�footed lancetooth
�iral coil
Fringed coil
R�mp cove supercoil
Open supercoil
Dwarf proud globe
Appalachian gloss
Designation GRank County
Senstive
Sensitive
6idangered
Senstive
Locally rare
Locally rare
Locally rare
Lncally rare
Locally rare
Locally rare
Locally rare
Locally rare
Locally rare
G3Q
G3Q
G2
G2G3Q
G?[G3]
G?[G3]
G?[G2]
G?[G2]
G?[G3]
G?[G1 Q]
G?[G3]
G?[G2]
G?[G2]
G, S
G
G, S
G
G, S
G, S
S
G, S
G
G
G
G, S
S
Identified within or
near Nantahala
National Forest in
the Study Area*
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
167
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 31 (Continued)
�ement Ocxurrenoes of Protected, Endangered, Threatened, and Sensitive (PEfS)
Speaes in Graham and/or S1�vain County, North Carolina
Scientific Name Common Name Designation GRank County
Vascular Rarrts
Carex purpurifera FUrple Sedge Locally rare G4? G
Desmodium ochroleucum Cream tick-trefoil Senstive G2G3 S
Vatris s�uarrulosa Earle's Blazing Star Locally rare G4G5 G, S
Milium effusum Millet-grass Lncally rare G5 S
�ododendron cumberlanden� Cumberland Azalea Locally rare G4? G
R.rgelia nudicaulis �gel's ragwort Senstive G3 S
9�mandra hi�nidula 9,�nandra Locally rare G4 S
Notes GGraham County S9dvain County
� Fbpulations of these species have been identified in the project study area or within a 2-mile (3.2-km)
radius of the project study area as reported by the NCNHP.
GRank = Global Ranking
G1 Critically imperiled globally because of extreme rarity or otherwise very vulnerable to extinction
throughout its range.
G2 Imperiled globally because of rarity or otherwise vulnerable to extinction throughout its range.
G3 6ther very rare and local throughout its range, or found locally in a restricted area.
G4 Apparently sea.ire globally, although it may be quite rare in parts of its range (es�ecially at the
periphery).
G5 Demonstrably secure globally, although it may be quire rare in parts of its range (espeaally at
the periphery).
GH OF historical occurrence throughout its range.
GX Believed to be extinct throughout its range.
GU Fbssibly in peril, but status uncertain; more information is needed.
G? Unranked, or rank uncertain.
G_Q OF ques#ionable taxonomic status.
G T Status of subspecies or variety; the Grank refers to the speaes as a whole, the T-rank to the
subspeaes.
Identified within or
near Nantahala
National Forest in
the Study Area*
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
168
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
3.9.5.6 �eciesNew to Science
GSMNP is acknowledged for tbe biodiversity it contains. There is an ongoing effort to
inventory all of the species living in the park in an effort to better understand and thus
manage the ecosystem. 1'his effort has been designated as the All Taxa Biodiversity
Inventory (ATBI). The ATBI at GSMNP was conceived in late 1997, in part as a protorype
for other reserves. It utilizes both traditional and structured approaches to surveying far
species. The traditional approach utilizes the knowledge and experience of taxonomic
specialists, who visit GSMNP and make collections of their arganisms. The structured
approach is based on the use of selected, standardized, bulk sampling devices (traps) in an
array of 2.5-acre (1-ha) plots. The plots, only a few of which presently are in place, are
distributed across the Smokies landscape using a Geographic Information System analysis of
physical, biotic, and historic land-use parameters to ensure as complete and objective
coverage as feasible. One of the outcomes of this intensive survey is discovery of species
that ha�e never been classified before or "species new to science." As of October 2003,
surveys in GSMNP have resulted in 410 species new to science (DLIA 2003). The majority
of these species are algae, arachnids, crustaceans, and various insects. Since very little
information is know about these species it is unknown if they are rare, what their appropriate
habitats are, and if any populations exist in the study area. If species new to science are
found during field surveys, they will be described in the DEIS.
3.10 Aesthetics and Viewsheds
This section contains a generalized overview of aesthetics and viewsheds in the study area.
Mare detailed information and evaluation will be provided in the EIS. The scenic
environment of the study area is an important part of the natural setting of GSMNP. The
scenic environment of the study area is also integral to recereational resources throughout the
area. The aesthetics and viewsheds in the study area can be looked at in terms of preferred
landscapes or scenic vistas that "involve" the viewer, which allure and elicit emotion through
the viewing experience.
According to the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Visual Resource Management
Manual, landscape character is determined by the visual elements of form, line, color, and
texture. Modifications to the landscape that repeat the landscape's basic elements are said to
be in harmony with their surroundings. Modifications that do not harmonize often look out
of place and are said to contrast or stand out in unpleasing ways (BLM 1984). This is similar
to USFS scenery management guidelines, which refer to "scenic integriry" as a measure of
the degree of visible disruptions of the landscape character (USFS 1995).
169
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Scenic views contribute to feelings of community pride and value. A scenic view is taken
from the user's perspective and lea�es an impression of the area on the beholder as well as
the surrounding community. Aesthetic quality is also dependent on the value system of the
viewer. Numerous scenic views with aesthetic value exist within the study area, such that
any location within it could be considered aesthetically pleasing.
Aesthetics and scenic views are important characteristics of the study area. The preservation
of the land in its natural state has attracted tourists from all over the world in search of the
unfettered scenery at GSNINP. All of the mountain peaks in the park provide scenic views.
Many of the peaks are bald, providing a panoramic 360-degree view. Scenic overlooks are
plentiful throughout the study area in locations such as along NC 28, various hiking trails,
and Fontana Dam.
Within the interior of GSMNP there are numerous areas of unique visual quality. The wide
valleys of Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek provide a clear view to the top of the highest ridges
in the park. The lookout atop Shuckstack Mountain in the westernmost portion of the study
area gives a panoramic view that includes Fontana Lake.
�cenic overlook on NC 28 looking north toward GSM NP
An example of an interior viewshed can be witnessed at High Rocks, located along the spine
of Welch Ridge. Atop High Rocks, the panoramic view includes the highest peaks in the
North Carolina portion of GSMNP, as well as Fontana Lake and all the knobs and streams in
between.
170
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
The grassy bald surrounding the old Bone Valley settlement is another notable view.
Footings still mark the location of buildings that have long since vanished. A restored cabin
nestled in the woods creates an indelible image. The remnants of the former town offer a
glimpse of its bustling past in the early 1900s. Similar scenes are located within the former
town of Proctor.
3.10.1 �cenic Byways
NC 28 in the study area is part of the Indian Lakes Scenic Byway designated by the NCDOT.
North Carolina Scenic Byways are selected based on natural, cultural, and historic features
along the route. They embody the diverse beauty and culture of the state and provide
travelers with a safe and interesting alternate route. The Indian Lakes Scenic Byway is
named for the many lakes with Native American names along its path. It traverses roughly
60 miles (97 km) from Almond, through Fontana Village, to Tapoco and Topton. The Indian
Lakes Scenic Byway connects into the Nantahala Byway that travels along US 19/US 74/
US 129 from Whittier to Marble, North Carolina. The Nantahala Byway traverses 43 miles
(69 km) in Cherokee, Jackson, Swain, and Graham counties (NCDOT 2001).
3.11 Air Quality
3.11.1 Regulatory Status
The USEPA and the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(NCDENR) are responsible for protecting air qualiry within the state. The USEPA
established criteria for evaluating air qualiry in accordance with the 1970 Clean Air Act
(CAA) and 1990 CAA Amendments. Two National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS), primary and secondary, were established for defining air quality. Primary
standards refer to air qualiry levels required to protect public health with an adequate margin
of safety. Secondary standards or welfare standards refer to air quality levels required to
safeguard visibility, comfort, animals, and properiy from the deleterious affects of poor air
quality. NAAQS were established far the following six air pollutants (criteria pollutants):
carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen dioxide (NOz), sulfur dioxide (SOz), ozone (03),
and particulate matter (PM). Particulate matter includes those particles with diameters of
roughly 0.0004 inches (10 µm) or less in size (PM ] 0) and 0.000] inches (2.5 µm) or less in
size (PM 2.5). The NAAQS are shown in Table 32. The state of North Carolina has adopted
these same standards. Also shown in Table 32 are monitored values of 03, PM 10, PM 2.5,
and SOZ from an air quality monitoring site in Bryson City on Center Street. Monitored
values for CO, NO2, and Pb are not shown, as these pollutants are not monitored in the
viciniry of the study area. Although the monitored values can be compared to the NAAQS,
the values may not be representative of the air quality throughout the entire study area.
171
Table 32
NAAQS and M onitored Conoentrations for Criteria Pollutants
Pollutant Type of Averaging Standard Monitored
Standard Time Value** Value
Carbon Mono�ade FYimary 8-hour� 9 ppm (10 mg/m3) ----------
(CO)
Nitrogen Dio�ade
(NOz)
Ozone
\O3/
Particulate Matter
(FM 10)
Rimary and
Secondary
Rimary and
Secondary
Rimary and
Secondary
Partiaalate Matter R�imary and
(FM 2.5) �econdary
3�Ifur Dio�ade Rimary
��z)
1-hour�
Annual
Arithmetic Mean
8-hour^
1-hour^
Annual
Arithmetic Mean
24-hour
Annual
Arithmetic Mean
24-hour
Annual
Arithmetic Mean
24-hour
35 ppm (40 mg/m3)
0.053 ppm
(100 Ng/m3)
0.08 ppm (157 �g/m3)
0.12 ppm (235 Ng/m3)
50 �ag/m3
150 �g/m3
15 �g/m3
65 �g/m3
0.030 ppm (80 �g/m')
0.14 ppm (365 �g/m')
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Location
0.074 ppm �n City
0.091 ppm Bryson City
21 �g/m3 Bryson City
100 �g/m3 Brys�n City
13.4 �g/m3 Bryson City
30.9 �g/m3 B�ys�n City
0.0016 ppm �n City
0.008 ppm �n City
Secondary 3-hour 0.50 ppm (1,300 �g/m3) 0.013 ppm &yson City
Lead Rimary and Quarterly Average 1.5 ug/m3 ---------- ----------
(Fb) Secondary
� Not to be exceeded more than once per year.
^ To attain the 8-hour standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour average
of continuous ambient air monitoring data over each year must not exceed the standard value. To
attain the 1-hour standard, the daily maximum 1-hour average concentration measured by a continuous
ambient air monitor must not exceed the standard value more than once per year, averaged over 3
oonsecxative years.
�� Parenthetical value is an approximately equivalent concentration. Units of ineasure for the values are
parts per million (ppm) by volume, milligrams per cubic meter of air (mg/m3), and micrograms per cubic
meter of air (Ng/m3).
Sources www.epa.gov/airslcriteria.html U�'A, Air Quality 9�stem Quidc Look F�port 2000, 2001, and
2002
According to NCDENR, Swain and Graham counties are currently classified as attainment
areas for all criteria pollutants. Attainment areas are considered to have air quality that meets
or exceeds the NAAQS. The USEPA is currently reviewing an NCDENR recommendation
to classify the North Carolina side of GSMNP, including portions of the study area, as an 8-
hour ozone nonattainment area. The final designation will be made April 15, 2004. A
172
nonattainment area is an area where pollution levels have exceeded the NAAQS. This
designation requires that these areas imple�nent strategies to improve air quality. Results
from ozone monitoring at Clingmans Dome in Tennessee and at Barnett Knob in North
Carolina show that both locations do not meet the 8-hour ozone NAAQS. Both monitoring
locations border Swain County, North Carolina, and can be indicative of air quality in the
study area.
3.112 The Gean Air Act and Class 1 Areas
The CAA passed in 1970 established national policy to
preserve, protect, and enhance air quality. The 1977 CAA
Amendments established the Prevention of Significant
Deterioration (PSD) Class 1 area. All national parks that
exceed 6,000 acres (2,428 ha) in size are designated Class
areas, including GSMNP. Class 1 areas are afforded the
greatest degree of air quality protection under the Act.
Pollution increments have been set for sulfur dioxide,
particulate matter, and nitrogen oxides within the Class 1
areas. New or expanding facilities that will potentially
affect the air qualiry of a Class 1 area must prove that they
will not cause pollutant concentrations to go above these
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
increments. In addition, Federal land managers (FLMs) air Quaiity
have the responsibility to protect the quality of air in Class
1 areas. Reviewing permits for new and expanding sources of air pollution is part of their
responsibiliry. This review process allows the FLMs the opportunity to comment on whether
these new sources of pollution will adversely affect the air quality of nearby Class 1 areas.
Protecting the air qualiry of Class 1 areas, specifically GSMNP, is difficult because most of
the air pollutants threatening the park, are emitted outside the park. Due to prevailing air
currents and the terrain of the region, pollutants fram industrial developments in the
Tennessee, Ohio, and Mississippi river valleys are trapped and concentrated in the southern
Appalachians. In addition, pollutants from the Northeast, Southeast, and Midwest tbreaten
the air quality of the region.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, emitted from the burning of fossil fuels, are responsible
for the majority of air quality impacts. These emissions convert to harmful secondary
pollutants (e.g. sulfate, nitrates, and ozone). Ozone pollution is responsible for injuring
vegetation. In addition, acid deposition is adversely affecting streams and soils in the Noland
Divide Watershed in Swain Counry. In fact, the Noland Divide receives a higher deposition
of nitrogen and sulfur than any other monitored location in North America. The degradation
173
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
of these resources is impacting aquatic as well as terrestrial resources. Furthermore, visitor
enjoyment and human health are also jeopardized by poor air quality in the area. Visibility at
GSMNP has been greatly degraded due to air pollution during the last 50 years. The average
visibility range at scenic views is currently 25 miles (40.2 km), when historically it was over
110 miles (177 km) (NPS 2001d).
k�F�►f•�'a
Dominant sounds throughout the study area include wind, thunder, and moving water as well
as those sounds produced by animals, such as mating calls. These sounds comprise the
natural soundscape. Human-caused sound from such sources as traffic or motorized
equipment can degrade the natural soundscape. Preservation of the natural soundscape is a
goal of the NPS. The natural soundscapes throughout the study area provide an intrinsic
value, which adds to the solitude and unique experience it presents.
This report utilizes the Leq noise descriptor. The equivalent sound pressure level, Leq (A-
weighted), is formulated in terms of the equivalent steady-state noise level, which in a
defined period of time contains the same noise (acoustic) energy as a time-varying noise
during the same period of time. The Leq is an energy summation integration and, as such,
does not rely on statistical parameters like the L�o scheme. Leq has a significant advantage
over the Lio scheme since the Lio scheme cannot adequately consider single event noises.
As part of this evaluation, current noise levels were determined in the study area. Ambient
noise measurement sites are shown in Figure 19 and are listed in Tables 33 and 34.
3.12.1 Characteris#icsof Noise
Noise is basically defined as unwanted sound. It is emitted from many sources, including
airplanes, factories, railroads, power generation plants, and traffic. Traffic noise is usually a
composite of several vehicle noise sources. These sources include the vehicle engine
exhaust, drive train, and interaction of tires with the roadway causing noise due to friction.
The magnitude of noise is usually described by its sound pressure. Since the range of sound
pressure varies greatly, a logarithmic scale is used to relate sound pressures to some common
reference level, usually the decibel (dB). Sound pressures described in decibels are called
sound pressure levels and are often defined in terms of frequency weighted scales (A, B, C, or
D).
The A-weighted scale approximates the frequency response of the human ear by placing most
emphasis on the frequency range of 1,000 to 6,000 Hertz. Because the A-weighted scale
174
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
closely describes the response of the human ear to sound, it is used almost exclusively in
vehicle noise measurements. Sound levels measured using A-weighting are often expressed
as dBA. Throughout this report references will be made to dBA, which means an A-weighted
decibel level. Several examples of noise pressure levels in dBA are listed in Table 35.
Table 33
Dominating Noise Souroes (30-M inute Reading Sites)
Ambient Noise
Measurement Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Measured Leq (dBA)
43.0
43.5
42.0
53.0
52.7
53.2
57.5
55.0
46.5
50.0
55.0
38.7
41.0
59.0
56.5
42.5
62.5
55.0
59.0
64.5
60.5
62.5
74.0
65.0
Dominating Noise Sources
Wind, birds
Wind, birds, Hazel Creek in the distance
Wind, birds, NC 28, parking lot
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, boats
Wind, birds, parking lot traffic
Wind, birds, road traffic, people talking
Wind, birds, road traffic, helicopter
Wind, birds, access road
Wind, birds, NC 28, ambulance
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28
Wind, birds, NC 28, construction area traffic
Wind, birds, NC 28, NC 143
Wind, birds, NC 28
175
Ambient Noise
Measurement Slte
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
Table 33 (Continued)
Dominating Noise Souroes (30-M inute Reading Sites)
Measured Leq (dBA) Dominating Noise Souroes
65.0 Wind, birds, NC 28
65.5 Wind, birds, NC 28
60.0 Wind, birds, NC 28, construction area traffic
62.8 Wind, birds, NC 28
64.7 Wind, birds, Newfound Gap Road
63.0 Wind, birds, Newfound Gap Road, Tow String
Road
61.0 Wind, birds, Newfound Gap Road, Clingmans
Dome Road
61.0 Wind, birds, Newfound Gap Road, parking lot
traffic
58.5 Wind, birds, Newfound Gap Road
55.5 Wind, birds, Newfound Gap Road
61.2 Wind, birds, NC 28, Almond Boat Park Road
58.5 Wind, birds, NC 28, parking lot traffic
41.0 Wind, birds, parking lot traffic
79.0 Wind, birds, NC 28, stream
43.5 Wind, birds, Lake View Road
41.5 Wind, birds, Lake View Road.
55.5 Wind, birds, Lake View Road, stream
46.8 Wind, birds, Lake View Road
35.0 Wind, birds
41.0 Wind, birds, light drizzle
43.5 Wind, birds, Lake View Road
58.0 Wind, birds, New Fontana Road
35.0 Wind, birds, airplane
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
176
E�cisting Conditions
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Table 34
Dominating Noise Sources (24-Hour Reading Sites)
Ambient Noise Measured Leq (dBA) Dominating Noise Sources
Measurement Slte
1 44.3 Wind, birds, boats
2 43.6 Wind, birds, NC 28
3 49.3 Wind, birds, NC 28
4 53.0 Wind, birds, NC 28, little rain
5 44.6 Wind, birds, little rain
6 43.0 Wind, birds
7 43.3 Wind, birds, �m Davis 13�ad
Review of Table 35 indicates that most individuals in urbanized areas are exposed to fairly
high noise ]evels from many sources as they go about their daily activities. The degree of
disturbance or annoyance from unwanted sound depends essentially on three things: (l) the
amount and nature of the intruding noise; (2) the relationship between the background noise
and the intruding noise; and (3) the type of activity occurring where the noise is heard.
In considering the first of these three factors, it is important to note that individuals bave
different hearing sensitivity to noise. Loud noises bother some more than others and some
individuals become aroused to anger if an unwanted noise persists. The time patterns of noise
also enter into an individual's judgment of whether or not a noise is objectionable. Far
example, noises occurring during sleeping hours are usually considered to be much more
objectionable than the same noises during waking hours.
With regard to the second factor, individuals tend to judge the annoyance of an unwanted
noise in terms of its relationship to noise from other sources (background noise). The
blowing of a car horn at night when background noise levels are approximately 45 dBA
would generally be much more objectionable than the blowing of a car horn in the afternoon
when background noises might be 55 dBA.
177
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 35
Typical Human Hearing Levels
Deabels
140 9�otgun blast, jet 100 feet (30 m) away at takeoff
130
Frecradcers
120 Severethunder, pneumaticjadchammer
Hodcey crowd
Amplified rock musc
110
100
.�
:�
70
60
50
40
30
20
Textile loom
3ibway train, elevated train, farm tractor
Fbwer lawn mower, newspaper press
Heavy aty traffic, noisy fadory
Painfully loud
Human ear pain threshold
Uncomfortably loud
Loud
Diesel trudc 40 mph (65 kph), 50 feet (15 m) away
Crowded restaurant, garbage disposal
Average factory, vacuum deaner
Passenger car 50 mph (65 mph), 50 feet (15 m) away Moderately loud
Quiet typewriter
9nging birds, window air conditioner
Quiet automobile
Normal conversation, average office
Household refrigerator
Quiet office
Average home
Dripping faucet
Whisper 5 feet (1.5 m) away
Light rainfall, rustle of leaves
Whisper
Quiet
Very quiet
Average person'sthreshold of hearing
Just audible
10 I
0 I Thre�old for acute hearing
Source: World Book, F�`and McNally Atlas of the Human Body, Encydopedia Americana, " Industrial Noise and
Hearing Conversation" by J. B. Olishifski and E R Harford (F�searched by N. ..�ne Hunt and published in the
Chicago Tribune in an illustrated graphic by Tom Heinz).
Original table title, " Hearing: Sounds that Bombard Us Daily."
178
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
The third factor is related to the interference of noise with activities of individuals. In a 60-
dBA environment, normal conversation would be possible while sleep might be difficult.
Work activities requiring high levels of concentration may be interrupted by loud noises
while activities requiring manual effort may not be interrupted to the same degree.
Over a period of time, individuals tend to accept the noises that intrude into their lives,
particularly if noises occur at predicted intervals and are expected. Attempts have been made
to regulate many of these types of noises, including airplane noise, factory noise, railroad
noise, and highway traffic noise. Methods of noise analysis and control bave developed
rapidly over the past few years.
3.122 Noise Abatement Q-iteria
In order to determine if future traffic noise levels are compatible with various land uses, the
FHWA bas developed noise abatement criteria (NAC) and procedures to be used in the
planning and design of highways. A summary of the NAC for various land uses is presented
in Table 36. The Leq levels given in Table 36 represent the upper limit of acceptable noise
conditions as established by FHWA.
Noise abatement must be considered if the NAC Leq values are approached or exceeded, or if
there are substantial increases over the ambient noise levels. The NCDOT has adopted Noise
Abatement Guidelines to define terms used in noise abatement. The NCDOT definition of
"approach" is 1 dBA less than those shown in Table 36. "Substantial" increase is defined as
either a I S-dBA or greater increase above existing noise levels less than or equal to 50 dBA,
or a] 0-dBA increase above existing noise ]evels greater than 50 dBA.
Abatement is only necessary where frequent human use occurs and in which a lowered noise
level would be of benefit. Exceptions to this rule include areas where sereniry and quiet are
considered essential even though the areas may not be subject to frequent human use. A noise
analysis will be conducted in the future in accordance with 23 CFR Part 772.
179
Activity �q �hr)
Category
A 57 (Exterior)
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Table 36
Noise Abatement Criteria
Desa-iption of Adivity Category
Lands on which serenity and quiet are of extraordinary sgnificance and serve an important
public need where the preservation of those qualities is essential if the area is to continue to
serve its intended purpose.
B 67 (6cterior) Flcnic areas, recxeation areas, playgrounds, active sports areas, parks, residenoes, motels,
hotels, schools, churches, libraries, and hospitals.
C 72 (6cterior) Developed lands, properties, or adivities not induded in Categories A or B above.
D -----
Undeveloped lands.
E 52 (Interior) F�sidences, motels, hotels, public meeting rooms, schools, churches, libraries, hospitals, and
auditoriums.
Source: 23 CFRPart 772, U.S Department of Transportation, FHWA.
3.12.3 Ambient Noise Levels
The ambient noise is that resulting from natural and mechanical sources as well as human
activiry, which is considered to usually be present in a particular area. A noise-monitoring
program was conducted in the project study area utilizing a Norsonic Nor-116 Type I sound
level meter for the 24-hour readings and a Delta OHM HD-9020 Type I sound level meter for
the 30-minute readings in order to measure ambient noise levels. Noise measurements were
conducted at seven 24-hour reading sites and 47 30-minute reading sites in and around the
study area. Out of the 47 30-minute reading sites, six measurements (as shown on Figure 19)
were conducted along Newfound Gap Road as a basis of comparison to what an existing,
heavily traveled road in GSMNP may be like. The noise ]evel measurements were conducted
using standard data collection techniques as outlined in the FHWA report Sound Procedures
for Measuring Highway Noise: Final Report. The purpose of this noise-level information
was to quantify the existing acoustic environment and to provide a base for assessing
potential future impacts. Differences in the measured noise levels are likely attributed to
variations in site conditions and traffic volumes.
3.12.4 �Lmmary
Overall, the noise range distribution for the study area falls between 35 dBA and 79 dBA.
The higher range values occur on NC 28 in the viciniry of existing road construction. The
180
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
majority of the lower-range values occur in and close to GSMNP. This shows that the areas
with more human development and higher traffic volumes typically ha�e higher noise values.
3.13 Hazardous M aterial and Waste 5l'tes
Hazardous material and waste sites are regulated by the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act of 1976 (RCRA), as amended; the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), as amended; and the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA). Hazardous waste is generally
defined as any material that has or, when combined with other materials, will have a
deleterious effect on humans or the natural environment. Characterized as reactive, toxic,
infectious, flammable, explosive, corrosive, or radioactive, hazardous waste may be solid,
sludge, liquid, or gas. Potential hazardous material and waste sites include service stations,
landfills, dumps, pits, lagoons, salvage yards, and industrial sites, as well as above and
underground storage tanks (AST and UST).
Environmental Data Resources, Inc. (EDR) was contracted to search the appropriate federal
and state databases for facilities of potential concern that may be located within the study
area. Figure 20 illustrates the approximate location of ]rnown hazardous material and waste
sites within the study area. In addition to these sites, other potential hazardous material and
waste sites may exist within the study area due to illegal dumping, lack of compliance with
regulatory reporting practices, and limited regulatory data. It is likely that homes and
businesses within the study area utilize tanks for heating fuel and farm equipment supply.
Prior to its conversion into GSMNP, the development along what is now the northern shore
of Fontana Lake consisted of residential, commercial, and industrial uses. Although not
documented, the use of ASTs and USTs likely occurred. Furthermare, mining operations
were once active at such locations as Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek. The presence of
hazardous material and waste sites related to these operations as well as the aforementioned
land uses is unknown.
EDR identified 22 UST sites, 8 Facility Index System (FINDS) sites, 12 Incident
Management Database (IMD) sites, four leaking underground storage tank (LUST) sites, two
State Trust Fund Database (LUST TRUST) sites, two North Carolina Hazardous Substance
Disposal Site (NCHSDS) sites, one Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Infonnation System (CERCLIS) site, one Resource Conservation and Recovery
Information System (RCRIS) Large Quantity Generator (LQG) site, one RCRIS Small
Quantity Generator (SQG) site, and one Mines Master Index File (MINES) site. EDR
identified sites are shown in Table 37. The Map ID Number listed corresponds to the
numbers on Figure 20. The sites listed below may no longer be in operation or may have
181
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
relocated; however, site identification continues to be important due to the possibility of
remaining contaminants. It should be noted that the presence of hazardous materials at a
certain location does not indicate that the location is a threat to public health. Furthermore,
these sites were identified during a records search, which indicates that they are registered
with the proper agencies.
Table 37
Hazardous M aterial and Waste S1tes Identified by mR
Map ID Number Faality Location Database(s)
1 Alarka General 3ore 3091 Highway 19 South, UST
Bryson City
2 Almond Bementary �hool 10 Almond �chool f-d�ad, UST
&yson City
3* Amoco West End Food Stop 240 West Bessemer IMD
#210 3reet, Bryson City
4 Aztex #210 110 Highway 19 South, UST
Bryson City
5 Belk Department 3ore 107 Everett �treet, Bryson UST
City
6 Bill Moody Funeral Home 285 Main Street, Bryson IMD, UST, LUSTIRJST
City
7 Carolina Building �pply 100 Greenlee Street, IMD
Bryson City
8� Consolidated Metco Bryson 1821 Highway 19 South, RNDS, f�PoS�LQG
City (Conmet) Bryson City
9 FiiwardsAmoco Servioe 2291 Highway 19 South, UST
Station &yson City
10 6cpressLaneMarket USHighway19,Bryson IMD
City
11 Federal Building 50 Main Street, �yson f�I�S�BQG, ANDS
City
12 Fontana Motel NC 28, Tuskegee IMD
13 Fontana F�ppertree 737 Welch F3�ad, Bryson LUSTTf�1JST, IMD, LUST
City
14 Fontana Texaco Highway 28, Fontana IMD
Dam
15 Hot �ot #1102 1030 Main 3reet, Bryson UST
City
182
Table 37 (Continued)
Hazardous Waste Sites Identified by mR
Map ID Number Faality Location
16 Hyatt Creek 6aon Hyatt 13�ad US 19 Bypass,
Bryson City
17 .1� Cope Highway 19 West, Bryson
City
18 .L Colville Construction No address available
Company
19 .bhnsons Grocery Highway 28 South,
Fontana Dam
20 Kirkland Creek Grocery 1755 East Main �reet,
Brys�n City
21 Lois �ing 5501 Highway 19 West,
Brys�n City
22 Maness Manufacturing 80 & 81 F�amseur Street,
Company Brys�n City
23 Midtown 5�ell �ation Main 3reet, Bryson City
24 Mountain Outdoor 7530 Highway 19 West,
Bryson City
25 Nantahala Food Mart 12121 Highway 19 West,
&yson City
26 Nantahala Village 4 Highway 19 West,
&yson City
27 NCDOT (Divison 14) 345 Toot Hollow R�ad,
&yson City
28 Fbwell Industries-9�noky 1019 Bryson Walk,
Cove &yson City
29 Fbwell Lumber & Kiln Inc./ 1011 Brys�n Walk,
Fbwell Industries, Inc. &yson City
30 Snger Furniture Divison 1011 Bryson Walk,
&yson City
31 9noky Mountain Tire 66 US 19 North, �yson
Company City
32 Southern Concrete 160 9ope Street, Bryson
Materials(formerOwens City
Cona�ete Company)
33 9✓vain County Bus Garage 344 Highway 19 North,
&yson City
34 9✓vain County High �chool 1415 Fontana f3�ad,
&yson City
Database(s)
LUST, UST
UST
M IN6
UST
UST
UST
FINDS
IM D, LUST
UST
IM D, LUST, UST
IMD
UST
FINDS
FINDS
UST, NC H�S
UST
UST, FINDS
UST
UST
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
183
Map ID Number
35�
36
37
38
39
40
41
Table 37 (Continued)
Hazardous Waste Sites Identified by mR
Faality Location
8✓vain County Landfill Budcner &anch f�i,
Bryson City
9dvain County �nitation �chool House f3�ad,
Brys�n City
9✓vain County 9ieriff's
Department
9✓vain County West
Bementary
The Rt 3op
Wallace Tube Company
Wiggins66 3ation
Everett 3reet & Main
3reet, Bryson City
4142 Highway 19 West,
Brys�n City
223 East Main 3reet,
Brys�n City
Rne 3reet off Gibson
Avenue, Bry�n City
315 Main 3reet, Bryson
City
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Database(s)
CffdCIJ� FIND� NC
H�S
IMD
FINDS
UST
UST
IMD
UST
� Indicates these stes are listed on both Table 37 and Table 38.
Key:
LUST: The Leaking Underground 3orage Tank Inadent f�ports
UST: ?he Underground 3orage Tank Database
RND� The Faality Index 9,rstem contains both faality information and " pointers' to other sources of
information that contain more detail.
F�I�SBQG: The f�source Conservation and �very Information 9�em indudes selected information on
stes that generate, transport, store, treat, and/or dispose of hazardous waste as defined by the
I�RA. The stes induded in this database are small quantity generators (9�G).
I�I�SLQG: The f�source Consenration and �very Information 9,�stem indudes selected information on
sites that generate, transport, store, treat, and/or dispose of hazardous waste as defined by the
I�RA. l�he stes induded in this database are large quantity generators (LQG).
IMD: The Inadent Management Database listsgroundwater and/or soil contamination inadents.
The information isobtained from the NCDB�IR
LUSTIT�IJST: The State Trust Fund Database oontains information about daimsagainst the State Trust Funds
for reimbursementsfor expensesincurred while remediating LUSTs.
M INES The Mines Master Index Fle data is obtained from the Department of Labor, Mine �afety and
Health Administration.
C8�LI3 The Comprehensve Environmental �onse, Compensation, and Liability Information 9,�stem
contains data on potentially hazardous waste stes pursuant to the CB�LA.
NC H�� The Hazardous 9ibstanoe Disposal 9te database indudes the locations of uncontrolled and
unregulated hazardouswaste stes.
184
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
In addition to Internet research, a field reconnaissance survey was conducted in June 2003 to
feld check orphan sites identified by EDR. Orphan sites is a term used by EDR and refers to
those facilities that cannot be mapped due to poor or inadequate address information. Most
of the orphan sites were determined to be outside the study area. Of the 74 orphan sites, five
were identified within the study area during the field reconnaissance survey and Internet
research. The five located sites actually represent 15 of the orphan sites, due to variations and
duplications in the federal and state databases. For example, the Swain County Landfill was
listed three times due to name and address variations. In addition, Fontana Dam was listed
several times due to multiple incidents. Table 38 lists the identified orphan sites, also shown
in Figure 20. The Map ID Number listed corresponds to the numbers on Figure 20.
Map ID Number
3�
42
43
Table 38
Hazardous M aterial and Waste S1tes (Orphan Sites)
Faality
Amoco West End Food
9�op #210/West End
Amoco #210
Fontana Dam
Former M arks 6ocon
8� Gichner 9ielter 9,rstems
(is now Conmet)
35� 9✓vain County Landfill
Location
Highway 19 West
Highway 28
131 Highway 19 North,
&yson City
1821 Highway 19 South,
Bryson City
Buckner Branch 13�ad,
&yson City
� Indicates these stes are listed on both Table 37 and Table 38.
Database(s)
LUST, LUST TRJST
B�1S
LUST
IMD
ou, �ws
Key:
B�1S The Emergency �onse Notification 9,�stem records and stores information on reported releases
of oil and hazardoussubstances.
OLI: The Old Landfill Inventory list old landfill stes The information is obtained from the NCDBVR
S-IW� The Inactive Hazardous Stes Inventory is the state's equivalent to Cff2CLIS�
3.13.1.1 Landfills
The Swain Counry Landfill, now closed to municipal waste, is located on Buclrner Branch
Road. The facility continues to accept construction demolition debris and runs a recycling
185
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
facility. Municipal waste for the county is taken to the EBCI transfer station, on the
Cherokee Indian Reservation east of the study area. The waste is then hauled to Palmetto
Landfill in South Carolina. The transfer station can handle 300 tons of waste per day.
3.14 Utilities
3.14.1 G5V1 N P
Facilities within GSMNP that require utilities are concentrated around developed areas such
as the visitor centers and the campgrounds. No utilities are provided within the study area
portion of the park. However, a power transmission line servicing Fontana Dam traverses the
western portion of the study area within GSMNP's boundary. Due to the park's size and the
fact that it encompasses portions of two states and five counties, electricity providers and
water and sewer services vary throughout the park. Five electricity providers service the
park. Water and sewer service includes wells, septic tanks, municipal providers, and on-site
sewage treatment facilities.
3.14.2 TVA'sFontana Reservoir
The ariginal authorized purposes of Fontana Reservoir, operated by the TVA, were for flood
control, navigation, and power generation. Water supply, water quality, power plant cooling,
and recreation are also supported by the operation of Fontana Reservoir. The Tennessee
Valley Public Power Association, Inc. (TVPPA) is the non-profit, regional service
arganization that represents the interests of consumer-owned electric utilities operating within
the TVA service area. Members of the TVPPA include both municipal and electric
cooperatives, and they serve more than 8.5 million customers in Alabama, Georgia,
Tennessee, Mississippi, Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina (although not within the
study area) (http://www.tvppa.com/ 2003).
Fontana Reservoir provides 300 MW of electrical generating capaciry and 583,000 acre-feet
(774,383 ha-m) of flood storage capacity. It also plays an important role in operation of
downstream hydro plants operated by Tapoco and the TVA, and in providing sLimmer
cooling water for downstream nuclear plants at Watts Bar, Sequoyah, and Browns Ferry. It is
the largest tributary reservoir in terms of generating capacity and one of the most important
tributary reservoirs in the operation of TVA's integrated river management system.
Because of its large flood storage capacity and protected watershed, which prevents
sedimentation, the lifetime of the reservoir is estimated to exceed 100 years. With
appropriate maintenance, Fontana Dam should be able to operate almost indefinitely. Water
186
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
releases from Fontana Reservoir help to maintain minimum navigational depth, as well as to
maintain and improve water qualiry and aquatic habitat throughout the TVA system (TVA
2003).
3.14.3 Remaining Study Area Utilities
3.14.3.1 Bectric Power
Electrical service within the study area is provided by Duke Power in both Swain and
Graham counties. Major power transmission lines and substations are shown on Figure 21.
3.14.3.2 Natural Gas
Natural gas is not currently available in the study area. However, Public Service North
Carolina (PSNC) Energy is in the process of expanding its natural gas service to Bryson City.
This expansion is expected to be completed by the end of 2003. According to Kenneth
Owenby with PSNC Energy, there are no plans to provide other portions of Swain County
with gas service at this time. Mr. Owenby also indicated that PSNC Energy has relinquished
its franchise rights for Graham County. There are no plans to provide Graham County with
natural gas service at this time.
3.14.3.3 Water and Wastewater Facilities
Bryson City provides water and sewer services for residences within its municipal limit.
Water and sewer service outside the town's municipal limits is scattered and primarily serves
the developed areas north of town. Graham Counry does not provide its citizens with water
and sewer services. Residences in the study area not serviced by Bryson City rely on private
wells and septic systems. The location of water and sewer lines and the wastewater treatment
plant are shown on Figure 21.
3.15 Public Projeds in the Vianity of the Study Area
The public projects described below will be evaluated in the DEIS for their potential, when
combined with the North Shore Road project, to have cumulative impact on the study area.
The CEQ defines cumulative impacts as "impacts on the environment which result from the
incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, and reasonably
foreseeable future actions regardless of what agency (federal or nonfederal) or person
undertakes such other actions" (40 CFR 1508.7). Public projects in the vicinity of the study
area are described below and include NCDOT TIP projects, projects discussed in local
187
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Thoroughfare Plans, and GSMNP projects such as the rehabilitation of Newfound Gap Road,
Ravensford Land Exchange, Cades Cove Opporiunities Plan, Foothills Parkway, and
Elkmont Historic District Planning. The Wilderness Designation and the Fontana Dam
Project are also discussed.
3.15.1 NCDOTTransportation Improvement Program Rojects
3.15.1.1 PYoject No. A-9
TIP Project No. A-9 (A-9) consists of widening US 74 from Andrews to NC 28 east of
Almond to a four-lane divided facility. The improvements will consist of primarily new
location roadway. A-9 is segmented into 10 smaller projects. Four of these, A-9 DA — DD,
are within the study area and consist of improvements to NC 28 from US 19 to Stecoah.
These improvements are expected to be complete by the end of 2003. An FEiS was
completed in February 1984 for A-9. Re-evaluations of the FEIS were completed in the mid
1990s for tbe segments within the study area.
3.15.1.2 OtherNCDOTPYojects
Project Nos. B-3701 and B-3458, both scheduled for construction in 2003, are bridge
replacements within the study area. B-3701 involves the construction of a bridge over Alarka
Creek on Lower Alarka Road. B-3458 involves construction of a bridge over Stecoah Creek
on Jenkins Road. Project No. �4588 is a streetscape enhancement project to Everette Street
in Bryson City and is currently under construction.
3.152 Thoroughfare Plans
Tharoughfare Plans are completed by the NCDOT Statewide Planning Branch in conjunction
with local jurisdictions. The plans document existing and future deficiencies in the local and
regional transportation system and long-range plans for new or improved facilities. The
recommended projects must be funded locally or placed on the NCDOT TIP to be
constructed. Following are summaries of the Thoroughfare Plans for Bryson City and
Graham Counry.
3.15.2.1 Brysnn Qty
The Thoroughfare Plan for Bryson Ciry, updated in 1993, discusses several transportation
improvements. Widening projects include Spring Street, US 19, Main Street, Everette Street,
Slope Street, Gibson Street, and Locust Street. Other improvements include a new frontage
188
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
road and interchange along US 74. The Spring Street widening is complete. No other
improvements have been completed nor are any listed on the NCDOT TIP.
3.15.2.2 Graham County
Updated in 1998, the Thoroughfare Plan Technical Report for Graham County and
Robbinsville addresses two projects that are in the NCDOT TIP. Project A-9, currently under
construction, involves the widening and realigning of NC 28. The second project, TIP
Project No. R-2407, ties into A-9 and also involves the widening and realigning of NC 28.
However, this project is currently not funded.
3.15.3 G9Vl NP Projects
3.15.3.1 Rehabilitation of Newfound Gap k�bad
Rebabilitation improvements are planned for Newfound Gap Road from the GSMNP
entrance near Cherokee and extend to Gatlinburg, Tennessee. Improvements include turn
lanes and various intersection improvements. The improvements are broken into five phases
with the first one scheduled for construction in Fall 2004. Appropriate environmental
documents are required for two of the five phases and will be completed prior to construction.
3.15.3.2 Ravensford Land 6cchange
A land exchange between the EBCI and NPS is currently being studied. EBCI proposed the
exchange, which would allow them to acquire land for new schools. The Ravensford Site,
located more than l0 miles (] 6 km) northeast of the project study area, is the proposed
location for the new schools. In exchange far the Ravensford site, NPS would receive the
Yellowface tract near the Waterrock Knob overlook of the Blue Ridge Parkway, which is
near the Jackson and Haywood county line more than 15 miles (24 km) due east of Bryson
Ciry. The Yellowface tract can be seen from the Waterrock Knob Visitar Center and
Overlook and from the Blue Ridge Parkway. The NPS has recently completed a DEIS for the
exchange. The Record of Decision is anticipated for the project.
3.15.3.3 CadesCove OpportunitiesRan
The Cades Cove area of GSMNP receives over two million visitors each year making it one
of the most visited areas in the National Park system. During the 20-year period between
1976 and 1997, visitation to Cades Cove increased 300 percent. Due to the high visitation
and use of this resource, the integrity of Cades Cove is being jeopardized. GSMNP is
189
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
currently studying alternatives that would address a range of issues identified during
scoping for the Cades Cove Development Concept and Transportation Management Plan.
While many issues have been identified, one major issue faced in Cades Cove is
congestion. The 11-mile loop road that encircles the valley floar is at a LOS of E or F 50
percent of the time during peak visitation (June, July, August, and October). Five
alternatives (one No-Action and four action alternatives) are currently being studied for
Cades Cove. The action alternatives are comprised of varying combinations of the
following options: completing roadway and parking improvements, requiring reservations
for private vehicular use of the road, utilizing a transit bus system, use of inessage signs,
and construction of visitor centers. GSMNP is preparing an EIS to identify a preferred
alternative for Cades Cove.
3.15.3.4 FoothillsParkway
The Foothills Parkway, conceived in the late 1920s, was authorized by Congress as a scenic
parkway on February 22, 1944 with the passing of Public Law 232. The purpose of the
Foothills Parkway as stated in the Law is to provide beautiful vistas of the Great Smoky
Mountains along their northern flank and to disperse visitor traffic. The State of Tennessee
purchased the right-of-way for the 72-mile (1 ] 5.9-km) parkway, which is administered as a
part of GSMNP. To date, only two discontinuous segments, totaling 22.5 miles (36.2 km),
have been completed and opened to vehicular traffic. The Parkway parallels GSMNP's
northern boundary as it extends east from Chilhowee Lake on US 129 to I-40 near Cosby,
Tennessee.
In 1984 and 1985, two contracts were awarded to construct ] 6.1 miles of the Parkway
between Walland and US 321 in Wears Valley. Both projects experienced such severe slides
and erosion problems that work was suspended, leaving a 1.6-mile "Missing Link." A new
design, which uses 10 bridges to minimize surface disturbance and resulting environmental
impacts, was developed for this 1.6-mile segment. To date, only two bridges have been
completed. It is expected that construction on another bridge will begin in spring 2004.
Completion of the "Missing Link" is a priority, but it is dependent on available funding.
Completion of the remainder of the Parkway is also dependent on available funding, provided
that environmental impacts can be adequately mitigated and that sufficient base funding can
be allocated for operation of the highway.
3.15.3.5 Bkmont Historic District R'anning
The Elkmont Historic District is located north of the study area on the Tennessee side of
GSMNP. Elkmont was developed in the early 1900s as a logging community. Adjoining
190
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
vacation, country club, resort communities followed prior to the establishment of GSMNP.
When land for GSMNP was being set aside in the 1920s and 1930s, owners within the club
towns were offered on�half payment for their property in exchange far a lifetime lease of the
structures. All leases expired in 1992, with the exception of two that expired in 2001. The
GSMNP GMP states that all buildings are to be removed upon termination of the leases and
the building sites are to be retumed to a natural state. The GMP has not been implemented on
this issue due to the fact that Elkmont was listed on the NRHP as an historic district in 1994.
The historic district consists of 74 structures. As part of the listing, 49 of the 74 structures
were listed as "contributing elements" to the historic district. The environmental compliance
process, formally began in spring 2002, effectively combines guidelines laid out by the
National Historic Preservation Act and NEPA. An EIS and GMP Amendment are being
prepared to enable the Park to make a decision on future management of this district.
Alternatives being developed include various mixes of cultural and natural preservation
strategies, which range from complete removal of structures to varying degrees of uses and
preservation of structures. GSMNP expects to reach a decision on this issue by the end of
2004.
3.15.4 Wilderness Desgnation
As discussed in Section 3.4 of this report, tbe Wilderness Act (September 1964) directed
the Secretary of the Interior to study all roadless National Park areas of 5,000 or more
continuous acres (2,023.4 ha) for wilderness designation. Since 1966, the NPS has been
pursuing wilderness designation for GSMNP in an effort to protect and perpetuate its
scenic and biotic resources. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Congress debated the issue
and drafted numerous bills either for or against designation of wilderness within GSMNP.
3.15.5 Fontana Dam Project
The Fontana Dam Project brought about major changes for the region (discussed in Section
3.2.2 of this report). Once completed in 1944, Fontana Lake flooded more than 10,000 acres
(4046.9 ha) of the Little Tennessee, Tuckasegee, and Nantahala valleys, causing the loss of
many farms and communities, as well as railroad lines and NC 288, the area's main east-west
roadway. More than 44,000 (] 7,806.2 ha) acres along the north shore of Fontana Lake
became inaccessible due to the flooding. The land was then acquired by the TVA and added
to GSMNP.
3.16 Private In-Holdings
Private in-holdings refer to privately owned properties that are either fully or partially located
within the boundaries of Nantahala National Forest, GSMNP, or TVA lands in the study area.
191
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
Private in-holdings were inventoried based on data provided by the NPS, the USFS, and the
NCCGIA. Figure 22 illustrates the location of private in-holdings within the study area.
The majority of private in-holdings were identified within the USFS lands, as they have
historically purchased lands on an ad hoc basis depending on funding and availability of land.
Approximately 34,290 acres (13,876.7 ha) within the study area portion of Nantahala
National Forest are privately owned lands. The majoriry of these lands are southwest of
Bryson City, south of Fontana Lake at Walnut Hollow Gap and Sawyer Creek, and at
Fontana Village.
According to the GSMNP GMP, several areas within the park are zoned as "Special Use."
These areas are defined by a lack of NPS administrative control ar curtailed by other interests
(GSMNP 1982). They include the "Reserved Rights Subzone" that encompasses the
approximately 44,000-acre (17,806.2-ha) tract transferred to the NPS by the TVA in 1949.
This large expanse is within GSMNP; however, it is the location of former towns and
cemeteries that existed prior to the preservation of the land as a reserve and priar to the
construction of Fontana Dam. Rights-of-way, water rights, burial rights, and other reserved
rights limit NPS management of this area (GSMNP 1982).
The area designated "Reservoir Subzone" within GSMNP is a management subzone that
comprises the water surface, the islands, and the intermittently submerged lands of Fontana
Reservoir between the southern boundary of the park and the 1,710-foot (521-m) contour on
the nortbern shore of Fontana Lake (the southern boundary of the park is legislatively
designated as the now submerged southern banks of the former Little Tennessee and
Tuckasegee rivers) (GSMNP 1982). The land within the Reservoir Subzone is owned and
administered by the TVA.
Transmission lines that traverse the park are designated within the "Utilities Subzone." This
subzone exists along the park's southwestern boundary (GSMNP GMP 1982).
The "Private Management Subzone" is made up of private lands in the northeastern and
eastern boundaries of the park. Within the study area, this designation includes tracis of land
in the Eagle Creek drainage areas that were a part of the historic copper mine owned by the
North Carolina Exploration Company. Portions of this area are submerged by Fontana Lake;
however, mineral rights are still owned by the successors to the North Carolina Exploration
Company, Cities Services Company. These lands total approximately 2,343.7 acres (948.5
ha) within the GSIVINP boundary (GSMNP 1982).
192
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
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193
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
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194
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
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195
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
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196
E�cisting Conditions
North 5�ore Road
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Appendix A
Memorandum of Agreement of
October 8, 1943
Appendix B
Stream Classifications