4.1.2

Context
Effects to a resource are based on a relevant context for that resource, which may be based on geographic
areas, relevant population of the resource, or, in the case of many socioeconomic effects, the perceptions of
affected individuals or groups.
Duration
Effects are short-term, long-term, or permanent. Defining short-term and long-term effects of the
alternatives is complicated in that the construction alternatives require a range of years to complete. For the
purpose of analysis, construction periods were assumed to be 2 years for the Laurel Branch Picnic Area, 5
years for the Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell, and 15 years for the Northern Shore Corridar. The
definition of permanent is incorporated, in particular, with natural resource impacts, since long-term effects
may occur well before the tim�period of construction is complete.
Intensity
As noted, the intensity of the impacts varies for each resource, but is categorized by NPS guidance as
no/negligible, minor, moderate, or major. The intensity of direct and indirect impacts to the same resource
may vary. Direct impacts are not necessarily more intense than indirect impacts.
4.1.2 Cumulative Impacts
The CEQ regulations to implement the NEPA require assessment of cumulative impacts in the decision-
making process. Cumulative impacts are defined as "impacts on the environment which result from the
incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions
regardless of what agency (federal or nonfederal) or person undertakes such other actions" (40 CFR 1508.7).
Cumulative effects were determined for each resource by combining the direct and indirect impacts of the
alternatives being considered with other applicable past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions in
the study area. The study area for cumulative impacts was expanded to include the entire GSMNP in order
to adequately address cumulative impacts to Park resources. Cumulative impacts of some resource topics
(e.g., economics) have the potential to extend outside this defined study area boundary and are discussed
from a regional perspective. In addition, some past, current, or future actions outside this study area are
discussed due to their relevance to the project or their regional impact.
Cumulative effects can be distant from the project in time, as well as space; therefore, a time horizon far the
analysis was also considered. The temporal boundary for the analysis was set generally beginning in the late
nineteenth century in order to consider those past actions that played a major role in shaping the study area.
A future temporal boundary of 20 years (2025) was set to encompass planned projects in the study area, as
Clarification of the term "baseline" for this project:
The Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell and the Northern Shore Corridor include a baseline route, as well as options to that route.
Baseline routes and options are detailed in Section 2.5 and shown on Figure 2-8. Baseline routes have been compared to existing
conditions. Impact analyses for the options are shown as a difference from the associated baseline route.
Environmental Consequences — 4-3
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement

well as to include the construction period of the Northern Shore Corridor alternative. This temporal
boundary also corresponds with the future year traffic projections.
Cumulative impacts are documented for each resource topic following the corresponding analysis of direct
and indirect impacts. These cumulative impacts were considered in the determination of overall impact
thresholds for each impacted resource. An evaluation of collective impacts to Park resources resulting from
the proposed alternatives is presented in Collective Impacts, Sustainability, and Long-Term Management,
Section 4.8.
4.1.2.1 Actions in the Area
A number of projects and trends in the study area vicinity were evaluated to determine their potential, when
combined with the North Shore Road Project, to have cumulative impact on the study area resources. This
information also describes, in part, the baseline conditions of the study area under the No-Action Alternative.
Several past public and private actions dramatically shaped the study area and changed the economic and
social conditions of the region. The relatively self-sufficient farming/herding/hunting lifestyles of the
nineteenth century began to change with the arrival of the railroad and the beginning of logging and mining
operations in the 1880s and 1890s. Lifestyles were modified greatly with the commencement of large-scale
logging operations by about 1910. By the time the lumber companies left, starting in the late 1920s, Alcoa
had developed plans for Fontana Dam and Reservoir along the Little Tennessee and had begun buying
bottomland in the area.
Past federal actions considered include the 1838 "Trail of Tears; ' the purchase of forestland in the region,
beginning in 191 l, for what is now the Nantahala National Forest; the establishment of the TVA in 1933; the
establishment of GSMN P in 1934; and the construction of Fontana Dam beginning in 1942. These actions
resulted in a decline in Swain Counry's population. Tbe flooding of the Little Tennessee River Valley due to
the construction of Fontana Dam eliminated lower reaches of many streams and the associated floodplain
wetlands. The dam flooded more than 10,000 ac (4,050 ha) of the Little Tennessee, Tuckasegee, and
Nantahala valleys, including areas that had been inhabited in some cases by generations by the people of the
Tennessee Valley. The project caused the loss of many farms and communities, as well as railroad lines and
NC 288, the area's main east-west roadway. More than 44,000 ac (17,800 ha) along the north shore of
Fontana Lake became inaccessible due to the flooding. The land was acquired by the TVA and added to
GSMNP. However, the construction of Fontana Dam also brought jobs for thousands of people in the area.
The effects of these public and private actions on the local economy and the people of the area are discussed
further in the Environmental Justice Section of the ECR, Section 3.2.2.
Other past actions, as well as some of the present and reasonably foreseeable projects and trends in the study
area vicinity are summarized below. Several projects were analyzed and determined to have no cumulative
effect on the study area when combined with potential impacts due to proposed North Shore Road
Clarification of the term "baseline" for this project:
The Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell and the Northern Shore Corridor include a baseline route, as well as options to that route.
Baseline routes and options are detailed in Section 2.5 and shown on Figure 2-8. Baseline routes have been compared to existing
conditions. Impact analyses for the options are shown as a difference from the associated baseline route.
Environmental Consequences — 4-4
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement

alternatives. These projects include the potential removal of the Dillsboro Dam and the rehabilitation of
Newfound Gap Road.
Public projects that could impact the study area include NCDOT STIP projects, projects included in local
thoroughfare plans, and GSMNP projects. (These projects are described in more detail in the Public Projects
in the Viciniry of the Study Area Section of the ECR, Section 3.15.) In addition, recent trends, including
gaming operations in Cherokee and increased second-home construction, are expected to continue to shape
the region. The planned relocation of the GSMR headquarters to downtown Bryson City will likely result in
dramatic changes to Bryson Ciry in the foreseeable future.
4.1.2.1.1 Cherohala Skyway
Construction of the Cherohala Skyway began in l 965. The completed roadway is approximately 40 mi (64.4
km) long and located in the Cherokee and Nantahala national forests between Tellico Plains, Tennessee and
Robbinsville, North Carolina, soutbwest of the study area. The road ascends to elevations above 5,000 ft
(1,524 m) and generally follows the crest line of that portion of the Blue Ridge Mountains.
4.1.2.1.2 NCDOT State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) Projects
STIP Project No. A-9 consists of widening approximately 27 mi (43.5 krn) of US 74 from Andrews to NC 28
east of Almond to a four-lane divided facility, primarily on new location. While portions of the project are
complete, the entire project is scheduled for completion after 2012. Project No. B-3701 involves the
replacement of a bridge over Alarka Creek on Lower Alarka Road. Construction is scheduled for fiscal year
2006. Project No. E-4588 involved streetscape improvements to Everett Street in Bryson City. Project No.
E-4972, which involves streetscape improvement to Depot Street in Bryson City, is scheduled for
construction in fiscal year 2007.
4.1.2.1.3 Appalachian Development Highway System
The Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) was established in the 1960s to address poverty in the
Appalachian Region of the United States. With the priority on developing a modern highway system as the key
to economic development, Congress authorized the construction of the Appalachian Development Highway
System (ADHS) in l 965. The ADHS is currently authorized at 3,090 mi (4,973 km). By the end of FY
2004, 2,627 mi (4,228 km) were complete or under construction (ARC 2005). NCDOT STIP Project No. A-
9 is funded through the ADHS program.
4.12.1.4 Thoroughfare Plans
Thoroughfare plans are completed by the NCDOT Statewide Planning Branch in conjunction with local
jurisdictions. Tbe plans document existing and future deficiencies in the local and regional transportation
Clarification of the term "baseline" for this project:
The Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell and the Northern Shore Corridor include a baseline route, as well as options to that route.
Baseline routes and options are detailed in Section 2.5 and shown on Figure 2-8. Baseline routes have been compared to existing
conditions. Impact analyses for the options are shown as a difference from the associated baseline route.
Environmental Consequences — 4-5
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement

system and long-range plans for new or improved facilities. The recommended projects must be funded
locally or placed on the NCDOT STIP list to be constructed.
Widening projects proposed in the Bryson City Thoroughfare Plan (1993) include Spring Street, US 19,
Main Street, Everett Street, Slope Street, Gibson Street, and Locust Street. Other improvements include a
new frontage road and interchange along US 74. The Spring Street widening is complete. No other
improvements have been completed, nor are any listed on the NCDOT STIP.
Updated in 1998, the Thoroughfare Plan Technical Report for Graham County and Robbinsville addresses
two projects that are in the NCDOT STIP: Project A-9 and Project No. R-2407. R-2407 ties into A-9 and
also involves ihe widening and realigning of NC 28. However, this project is currently not funded.
4.12.1.5 GSMNP Projects
The ECR discussed several projects proposed or underway in GSMNP. Projects determined to have the
potential to cumulatively, with the North Shore Road Project, impact GSMNP and/or the study area are
outlined below.
Elkmont Historic District Planning
The Elkmont Historic District is located on the Tennessee side of GSMNP. It consists of contributing and
non-contributing buildings, cultural landscape elements, and features associated with two private vacation
resort communities that date back to the early part of the twentieth century. When land for GSMNP was
being set aside in the 1920s and 1930s, owners within the club towns were offered one-half payment for their
property in exchange for a lifetime lease of the structures. All leases expired in 1992, with the exception of
one that expired in 1996 and two that expired in 2001. The GSMNP GMP states that all buildings are to be
removed upon termination of the leases and the building sites are to be returned to a natural state. The GMP
has not been implemented on this issue due to the fact that Elk�nont was listed in the NRHP as an historic
district in 1994. A GMP Amendment/EIS is being prepared to enable the Park to make a decision on future
management of this district.
The environmental compliance process, which formally began in spring 2002, effectively combines
guidelines laid out by the NHPA and NEPA. Alternatives developed include various mixes of cultural and
natural preservation strategies, which range from complete removal of structures to varying degrees of
preservation and uses of structures. The Elkmont DEIS/GMP Amendment was published February 10,
2006, and the official public comment period ended May 11, 2006. The environmentally preferred and
agency preferred alternative identified in the DEIS (Alternative C) proposes to retain the Appalachian
Clubhouse and 16 historic buildings in the Daisy Town area, as well as a cabin in the Society Hill area,
provide day use opportunities and parking to accommodate visitars, and restore native plant communities
and natural systems in areas where buildings are removed (NPS 2006a). The planning team is currently in
Clarification of the term "baseline" for this project:
The Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell and the Northern Shore Corridor include a baseline route, as well as options to that route.
Baseline routes and options are detailed in Section 2.5 and shown on Figure 2-8. Baseline routes have been compared to existing
conditions. Impact analyses for the options are shown as a difference from the associated baseline route.
Environmental Consequences — 4-6
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement

the process of reviewing public commenis and will respond to substantive comments in the Elkmont Final
EIS.
Foothills Parkway
The Foothills Parkway was authorized by Congress as a scenic parkway on February 22, 1944. The purpose
of the Foothills Parlcway is to provide beautiful vistas of the Great Smoky Mountains from the north flank
and to disperse visitor traffic. The Parkway parallels GSMNP's northern boundary as it extends east from
Chilhowee Lake on US 129 to I-40 near Cosby, Tennessee. To date, only two discontinuous segments,
totaling 22.5 mi (36.2 lan) of the 72-mi (115.9-km) parkway, have been completed and opened to vehicular
traffic.
In ] 984 and 1985, two contracts were awarded to construct 16.1 mi (25.9 km) of the Parkway between
Walland and US 321 in Wears Valley. Both projects experienced such severe slides and erosion problems
that work was suspended, leaving a 1.6-mi (2.6-km) "missing link." A new design, which uses ] 0 bridges to
minimize surface disturbance and resulting environmental impacts, was developed for this 1.6-mi (2.6-km)
segment. To date, two bridges have been completed. Construction on another bridge began in summer
2005. Completion of the "missing linl�' is a prioriry, but it depends on available funding. Completion of the
remainder of the Parkway also depends on available funding, as well as adequate mitigation of
environmental impacts and allocation of sufficient base funding far operation of the highway.
Lake View Road
In 1959, the state of North Carolina completed a road from Bryson Ciry to the GSMNP boundary.
Approximately 7.2 mi (1 ].6 km) of the originally proposed North Shore Road, including a tunnel, have been
constructed within GSMNP. The last segment was completed in the 1970s. Known as Lake View Road, the
road and the existing tunnel will require rehabilitation in the fareseeable future. If a partial-build ar build
alternative were selected, this rehabilitation would have to be finished prior to completion of construction.
There are also rehabilitation needs for the road crossing and extending north of Fontana Dam. Constructing
the Northern Shore Corridor using the Southem Option Crossing Fontana Dam would require that this
rehabilitation occur prior to completion of construction. More detailed study of these rehabilitation needs
and associated costs would be required if any of the partial-build or build alternatives were selected for
implementation.
Ravensford Land Exchange
A land excbange between the EBCI and NPS was authorized by congressional action in 2003. Through the
exchange, the EBCI acquired a site for new schools. The Ravensford site is located just east of Newfound
Gap Road north of Cherokee. NPS received a tract of land at Waterrock Knob, which is near the Jackson
and Haywood county line more than 15 mi (24 km) east of Bryson Ciry.
Clarification of the term "baseline" for this project:
The Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell and the Northern Shore Corridor include a baseline route, as well as options to that route.
Baseline routes and options are detailed in Section 2.5 and shown on Figure 2-8. Baseline routes have been compared to existing
conditions. Impact analyses for the options are shown as a difference from the associated baseline route.
Environmental Consequences — 4-7
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement

Cades Cove Opportunities Plan
The Cades Cove area of GSMNP receives up to 2 million visitors each year, making it one of the most
visited areas in the national park system. As a result, one major issue faced in Cades Cove is congestion.
The 11-mi (17.7-km) loop road that encircles the valley floor is at a LOS of E ar F 50 percent of the time
during peak visitation (June, July, August, and October). Five alternatives (one No-Action and four action
alternatives) are being studied for Cades Cove. The action alternatives are comprised of varying
combinations of tbe following options: completing roadway and parking i��nprovements, requiring
reservations for private vehicular use of the road, utilizing a transit system, utilizing intelligent transportation
systems, and constructing visitor centers. GSMNP is preparing an EIS to identify a preferred alternative for
Cades Cove.
Aggregate Surfacing of Cemetery Access Roads
This action involves resurfacing sections of five cemetery access roads on the north side of Fontana Lake in
GSMNP. The affected roads are Bone Valley Road (1.8 mi [2.9 km]), Woody Cemetery Road (0.8 mi [13
km]), Pilkey Creek Road (0.9 mi [1.4 km]), Cable Branch Road (0.6 mi [1.O lcm]), and Chambers Creek
Road (0.7 mi [1.1 km]). The work also includes roadway stabilization and replacement of deteriorated log
retaining walls. The work is funded and the project's construction is underway.
4.12.1.6 Wilderness Designation
As discussed in the Parklands and Recreational Facilities Section of the ECR, Section 3.4, the Wilderness
Act (September 1964) directed the Secretary of the Interior to study all roadless National Park areas of 5,000
or more contiguous ac (2,000 ha) for wilderness designation. Since 1966, the NPS has been pursuing
wilderness designation for GSMNP in an effort to protect and perpetuate its scenic and biotic resources.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Congress debated the issue and drafted numerous bills either for or against
designation of wilderness within GSMNP. Additional detail related to the history of wilderness designation
recommendations related to GSMNP is included Section 3.2.5.1.1 of this document.
4.12.1.7 Urbanization in the Eastern United States
Urbanization and suburbanization along the eastern seaboard of the United States has resulted in a reduction
in the amount of undeveloped areas including open space, forested land and other natural areas. Growth and
development has accelerated in the past few decades in the southeastern United States. Public lands without
public vehicular access comprise only 3 percent of the land in the Southern Appalachian region of Alabama,
Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. GSMNP has
been identified as having the largest total area (more than 464,000 ac [187,800 ha]) without roads that have
public vehicular access in the Southern Appalachian region, or more than one-third of such land in the region
(USDA 2004). This land area is almost twice as large as the largest National Forest area without public
Clarification of the term "baseline" for this project:
The Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell and the Northern Shore Corridor include a baseline route, as well as options to that route.
Baseline routes and options are detailed in Section 2.5 and shown on Figure 2-8. Baseline routes have been compared to existing
conditions. Impact analyses for the options are shown as a difference from the associated baseline route.
Environmental Consequences — 4-8
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement

vehicular access east of the Mississippi (USDA 2000). Potential changes to ]and use and management in
GSMNP are discussed in Land Use, Section 4.2.4.
4.1.2.1.8 Cherokee Casino
The 1997 opening and subsequent expansions of Cherokee Casino and Hotel/Conference Center by the
EBCI is the single largest influence shaping recent economic trends in the region. The casino has become
the area's largest employer. Through its local purchases of goods and services and expenditures by the more
than 3.3 million annual visitors, the casino indirectly supports many more jobs in construction, lodging and
food service establishments, trade, and the services sectar. The gaming-related revenues have allowed tribal
operations to expand, funding infrastructure investments and added services and programs.
4.12.1.9 Relocation of Great Smoky Mountains Railroad Headquarters to Bryson City
The GSMR, presently headquartered in Dillsboro, is widely credited with fostering a renewal of the
community's downtown. It is expected that the relocation of the GSMR headquarters to downtown Bryson
City will have a similar revitalizing effect in that location as well. Implementation of a strategic relocation
plan has begun with the renovation of an existing building near the Bryson City depot to include a
combination of ground-floor retail and second-floor offices for the company's administrative functions.
Those functions expect to relocate within the year. Future plans include additional redevelopment of
existing buildings, construction of a roundhouse and turntable for storage and maintenance of the company's
locomotives and rolling stock, a hotel/motel, and expanded parking. Full implementation will be a long-term
endeavor requiring ] 0 or more years. However, even prior to full implementation, Bryson City will become
the primary terminal for most of the GSMR's scheduled excursions. That change will dramatically increase
the number of people and traffic in downtown Bryson City, lengthen the duration of their visits, and provide
an economic infusion that would ripple across the downtown landscape, stimulating new business stariups,
reinvestment in existing structures, and new development.
4.1.2.1.10 Private Development (outside GSMNP)
With its outstanding scenic and recreational resources, western North Carolina has long been host to many
second-homes for use on a seasonal or occasional basis. The development in Swain and Graham counties,
which has increased in recent years, includes a substantial amount of retirement and second-home
construction intended primarily for seasonal or occasional occupancy. Meeting the needs and wishes of the
owners and guest of these units, in addition to those of traditional tourists, is seen as becoming a driving
force for economic develop�ment and redevelopment in Swain and Graham counties and elsewhere in the
region.
Clarification of the term "baseline" for this project:
The Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell and the Northern Shore Corridor include a baseline route, as well as options to that route.
Baseline routes and options are detailed in Section 2.5 and shown on Figure 2-8. Baseline routes have been compared to existing
conditions. Impact analyses for the options are shown as a difference from the associated baseline route.
Environmental Consequences — 4-9
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement

4.1.2.1.11 Other Trends
As demonstrated by the designation of westem North Carolina as the Blue Ridge National Heritage Area,
heritage tourism plays an important role in the regional economy. As noted in Economic Impacts, Section
4.2.2, tourism and recreation visitation are major drivers of long-term economic growth across the region.
While the number of visitors to the area is not expected to see large year-over-year increases, expenditures
by those who do visit the area are expected to rise. The number of touring motorcyclists, which increased in
the study area region over the last 10 to 15 years, can be expected to remain a part of the tolirism market for
the foreseeable future.
4.1.3 Impairment (as defined by NPS policy)
References to the purpose of GSMNP are provided in the NPS Organic Act of 1916 and in the legislation
establishing the Park. The National Park Service Organic Act of 1916 states that the NPS, ". .. shall
promote and regulate the use of the Federal areas known as national parks, monuments, and reservations
hereinafter specified ... by such means and measures as conform to the fundamental purpose of the said
parlcs, monuments, and reservations, which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic
objects and the wildlife where in and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such
means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." The Park's enabling
legislation states that GSMNP is "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people" and directed that the newly
created park be administered, protected and developed under the direction of the Secretary of Interior. As
further refined in the Park's 2005-2008 Strategic Plan, the purpose of GSMNP is "to preserve its
exceptionally diverse natural and cultural resources, and to provide for public benefit from and enjoyment of
those resources in ways that will leave them basically unaltered by modern human influences." (Additional
information about GSMNP enabling legislation is included in Great Smoky Mountains National Park,
Section 3.2.5.1. GSMNP enabling legislation is included in Appendix Q.)
NPS managers must always seek ways to a�oid, or to minimize to the greatest degree practicable, adverse
impacts on park resources and values. However, the laws establishing the national park system give the NPS
management discretion to allow certain impacts to park resources and values when necessary and appropriate
to fulfill the purpose of a park, so long as the impact does not constitute impairment of the affected resources
and values.
NPS Management Policies leave determinations of impairment to the responsible park manager and only
direct that an action should be considered to constitute impairment if, in the manager's professional
judgment, the action "would barm the integrity of the park resources or values, including the opportunities
that otherwise would be present for the enjoyment of those resources or values" (NPS 2006b). NPS policies
further state that whether an impact meets this definition depends on:
■ the particular resources and values that would be affected;
■ the severity, duration, and timing of the impact;
Clarification of the term "baseline" for this project:
The Partial-Build Alternative to Bushnell and the Northern Shore Corridor include a baseline route, as well as options to that route.
Baseline routes and options are detailed in Section 2.5 and shown on Figure 2-8. Baseline routes have been compared to existing
conditions. Impact analyses for the options are shown as a difference from the associated baseline route.
Environmental Consequences — 4-10
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement