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HomeMy WebLinkAbout3.23.1.3 Accident Analysis Accident data were obtained from the Traffic Engineering Branch of the NCDOT for the study area. The data include four mainline sections of US 74, US 19, NC 28, and Fontana Road and ten intersections along these roadways. The data represent all reported accidents occurring within a 3-year period from the fall of 1999 through the fall of 2002. During this 3-year period, 76 accidents were reported at the ] 0 intersections, and 208 accidents were reported along approximately 54.6 mi (88 lcm) of primary mainline sections, between intersections, within the study area. US 74 has an accident rate well below the average state rate, while US 19 has an accident rate approximately 80 percent higher than the statewide average for rural US routes. The accident rate for NC 28 is approximately 45 percent higher than the North Carolina average. Rear-end accidents are the most common accident type for intersections. Along mainline sections, "vehicles driving off the road" was the most common type of accident. A relatively large amount of motorcycle traffic is in the study area during the summer and fall months. The region is very popular with motorcyclists, likely because of the scenic views and curved roadways. Motorcycle racing has been reported along NC 28 between NC 143 and US 129 in Deals Gap. This activity has contributed to a high probability for motorcycle accidents. Roughly 14 percent of mainline roadway accidents involved motorcycles. For specific corridor and intersection accident rates, refer to the Accident Analysis Section of the ECR, Section 2.3. 3.2 Existing Human Environment 3.2.1 Socioeconomic and Community Features The region surrounding the North Shore Road Project is rural, sparsely populated and growing more slowly than the state of North Carolina, but at a moderate pace. The majority of lands in both Swain and Graham counties are federally owned. Small communities and development are concentrated along major roads and highways such as US l 9, US 74, and NC 28. Bryson City is the largest town in the area. The area's economy is transitioning to a predominantly servic�based economy centered on tourism associated with public and private outdoor recreation activities and other unique attractions such as the GSMR and the Cherokee casino. Economic conditions lag state averages, despite gains since l 990. The region has been shaped by historic Cherokee presence, early agricultural settlements, the timber industry, mining operations, and major public warks that include the Fontana Dam, creation and expansion of GSMNP, and USFS Nantahala National Forest creation and acquisitions. Details of the area's history and its influence on people living in the area of the North Shore Road Project today, are discussed in the Socioeconomic and Communiry Features and Cultural Resources sections of the ECR (Sections 3.2 and 3.3, respectively). Affected Environment — 3-4 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement 3.2.1.1 Demographic Profile of Area Accarding to U.S. Census data, population growth rates in the region lag statewide levels. Residents identifying themselves as racially White comprise the largest share of the region's population. The largest minority group in the region is Native American, with few other racial or ethnic minorities represented. Household and individual incomes among residents have increased in recent years, but continuing a long- tenn trend, still lag statewide averages. In part, that pattern reflects a relatively high dependency on seasonal jobs and persistent high unemploy��nent in the wake of declining manufacturing across the region. Housing values are below statewide averages and a larger share of the local housing supply is used on a seasonal, recreational or occasional basis. Accarding to U.S. Census data, the population of the region surrounding the project has grown since l 990, although growth rates generally have lagged statewide population growth rates. Swain and Graham counties had a combined population of 18,497 in 1990, 21,008 in 2000, and 21,120 in 2003. Between 1990 and 2000, population growth was slowest in Graham County (11.2 percent), compared with population growth in neighboring counties including Haywood (15.1 percent), Jackson (23.6 percent), Macon (26.9 percent) and Swain (15.1 percent) counties. Growth in Swain Counry was driven in part by growth in Bryson Ciry (23.2 percent) that exceeded the statewide growth rate (21.4 percent) for the same period. Outside of Bryson City, the other rapidly growing area in the vicinity of the project is on the south side of Fontana Lake. Moderate population growth is projected to continue in the region, with Graham Counry projected to continue to grow at a slower rate than neighboring counties. 2000 U.S. Census data indicates that the percentage of Swain County population that was racially White (66.3 percent) was lower than the statewide percentage (72.1 percent). In Bryson Ciry, the White population constituted 90.9 percent of the city's population, well above the statewide figure. The percentage of Swain Counry residents classified as American Indian or Alaska Natives (29.0 percent) was substantially higher than the statewide percentage of these populations (1.2 percent). In Bryson City the percentage of residents classified as American Indian ar Alaska Natives (5.0 percent), while higher than the statewide percentage, was well below the county level. These figures reflect the presence and location of the Qualla Boundary in Swain Counry. The population of Graham County is much more homogeneous than those of Swain County and the state, with the White population comprising 91.9 percent of the counry and Native Americans comprising the largest racial minoriry at 6.8 percent. The Native American population percentages in both Swain and Graham counties rose slightly from 1990 to 2000. Household incames in the area surrounding the project increased between 1989 and 1999, but the median household incomes of Graham County ($26,645) and Swain County ($28,608) continued to lag the statewide average ($39,184) by considerable margins. According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, personal incomes have continued to grow, reaching $166.] million in Graham County and $255.9 million in Swain County in 2002. However, personal income in the two counties on a per capita basis in 2002 were still lower than those in neighboring Haywood, Jackson and Macon counties, and the statewide average. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2000 median housing values in Swain and Graham counties and the areas in proximity to the project were lower than the statewide median housing value. Both Swain and Affected Environment — 3-5 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement Graham counties have much higher percentages of seasonal, recreation or occasional-use housing units than the statewide percentage for such units. More detailed data on population, demographic, housing and other trends can be found in the Demographic Profile of the Project Study Area Section of the ECR, Section 3.2.1, as well as the Regional Economic Impacts Technical Report (Appendix F). Census tracts and block groups are shown in Figure 3-1. 3.2.1.2 Community Facilities The region is rural and sparsely populated, with the majoriry of community facilities in the viciniry of the project located along NC 28 or US ] 9/LTS 74 and in Bryson City. Scattered residential development (including vacation homes), small businesses, community centers, schools, churches, and cemeteries are located in communities interspersed with USFS land from Bryson Ciry to Fontana Village. Bryson City is the largest community in proximity to the project and is characterized by mare compact residential development and larger commercial businesses serving tourists and residents of surrounding communities. Swain County High School, which also houses the Swain County Center for the Arts, is north of Bryson City along Fontana Road. GSMNP, the Nantahala National Forest, and Fontana Lake serve as major recreational facilities not only for outside visitors, but also for residents of the co�nmunities in the region. More detailed information on the individual communities and community facilities located near the project can be found in the Community Facilities and Land Use Sections of the ECR (Sections 3.1 and 3.2.3, respectively). 3.2.1.3 Economy and Employment Center for the Arts at Swain County High School holds drama and cultural events for Bryson City. The region surrounding the project is in transition from a resource-based commodity production and manufacturing economy to a more service and technology-oriented economic base. Various forms of outdoor recreation and tourism, including scenic touring, heritage tourism, and more recently, casino-style gaming and related entertainment on the Cherokee Reservation, are becoming the dominant influences shaping the region's economic base. ���ne combmea �ocai employment ot �wam ana Uranam counties m�uu� was 10,596 part-time and full-time jobs. In Swain County, 60 percent of all employment is concentrated in the retail trade, tourism-related services and government sectors. Graham County, with employment concentrations in manufacturing, construction, transportation and utilities, has a more industrialized economy compared to the economy of Swain County. Private and public sector enterprises in Swain and Graham counties recorded total gross retail sales, including receipts of lodging accommodations, of $135.5 million in fiscal year 2003-04. Unemployment rates in the area have historically been higher than the statewide average, although these rates have fallen substantially since the mid-1990s and the disparity from the statewide average is less pronounced. Unemployment in the region fluctuates seasonally, with fullest employment in summer and fall coinciding with the peak of tourism in the area. Many local residents Affected Environment — 3-6 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement commute to jobs in neighboring counties in North Carolina and to locations in the surrounding states. In part, such commuting reflects weaknesses in the local economy. Attracting more than three million patrons per year, the casino in Cherokee has spawned extensive commercial development, directly added more than 1,800 jobs, supported tribal infrastructure and program development, and increased tribal and personal incomes of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (ECBI). GSMN P, Blue Ridge Parkway, GSMR, Nantahala National Forest, and Fontana Lake host substantial recreation visitation that further supports the region's economy. Additional visitation is generated by such attractions as the Cherohala Skyway, Mountain Waters Byway, other scenic touring corridors, and a stretch of US 129 in Tennessee and North Carolina known as the "Tail of the Dragon" that is especially popular among motorcycle enthusiasts. Swain and Graham counties are part of the congressionally-designated Blue Ridge National Heritage Area. National Heritage Areas are regions where natural, cultural, histaric and recreational resources combine to form a nationally distinctive landscape of human activity shaped by geography. Following designation, a collabarative partnership between residents, private businesses, public sectar governmental entities, and non- profit groups develops a strategy to plan and implement programs and projects that recognize, preserve and celebrate the heritage of a region. Since its establishment in November 2003, various development initiatives have been developed for the Blue Ridge National Heritage Area. These initiatives include one for Swain County and one for the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBC�, which together outline $18.3 million in projects and programs to achieve heritage development goals for the region. Detailed information on population and employment trends can be found in the Regional Economic Impacts Technical Report (Appendix F) as well as the Economy and Employment Section of the ECR, Section 3.2.4. 3.2.2 Land Use (Existing and Future) 3.2.2.1 Existing Land Use Portions of the study area are within the planning jurisdictions of Swain Counry, Bryson Ciry, and Graham County. The area has a large percentage of federally owned lands, including TVA-owned property, GSMNP, and Nantahala National Forest. Swain County has roughly 80 percent of its land under federal jurisdiction, while Graham County has over 50 percent under federal jurisdiction. TVA has ownership of the land around Fontana Lake below 1,710 ft(521.2 m) in elevation from mean sea level (msl), while GSMNP manages to the centerline of the lake. NPS has authority over GSMNP, while the USFS has jurisdiction over Nantahala National Forest lands within the study area. Virtually all parklands within the project vicinity are forested. Land surrounding the Park is primarily forested foothills and mountains, and nearly all cultivatable land is farmed. The study corridors are within GSMNP. GSMNP encompasses approximately 800 square miles (mi�) (2,072 km�) in Swain and Haywood counties in North Carolina, and Blount, Sevier, and Cocke counties in Tennessee (NPS 2003a). GSMNP is designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Affected Environment — 3-7 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement Organization (UNESCO) as an International Biosphere Reserve. UNESCO describes Biosphere Reserves as "areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use" (UNESCO 2003). GSMNP is also one of 20 World Heritage Sites in the United States. The World Heritage Convention is part of the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) of LTNESCO. The North Carolina Natural Heritage Program (NCNHP) identifies, through various processes, Significant Natural Heritage Areas (SNHA) across the state. A SNHA is an area of land or water identified as being important for conservation of the State's biodiversiry and they generally contain one or more Natural Heritage elements: high-quality or rare natural communities; rare species; and special animal habitats. These areas, if not a�ailable for purchase, can be recognized through a Registry agreement, which is a voluntary agreement with the landowner that provides limited protection but recognizes the owner's commitment to conservation of the area. According to NCNHP, essentially the entire North Carolina portion of the Park is a Registered Natural Heritage Area. Land use within GSMNP is primarily preservation with appropriate recreational opporiunities. Hiking and backcountry camping, as well as horseback use and fishing are the primary recreational uses that occur in GSMNP in the project vicinity. Other visitor uses include educational activities (research, nature study) and photography. GSMNP manages the portion of the Park within the study area as backcountry. Backcountry campsites, trails, Lake View Road are the only facilities in the project vicinity. Visitor use is further described in Park Visitor Use, Operations and Maintenance, Section 3.2.5.1.1. In Bryson City, most development is situated linearly along main roads on non-federal lands. Land use in downtown Bryson City is predominantly commercial business mixed with some residential development. Land use surrounding Bryson City is predominantly scattered, larg�lot, residential development. Existing land use in the study area is further described in the Land Use (Existing and Future) Section of the ECR, Section 3.1. 3.2.2.2 Future Land Use and Planning 322.2.1 Great Smoky Mountains National Park The GSMNP GMP, published in 1982, functions as a management guide for the Park. The Park's primary purpose, as stated in the GMP is "to provide for visitor enjoyment compatible with preserving the rich assemblage of natural resources." The GMP designates management zones to indicate appropriate uses, activities, and management actions for the Parlc. The GMP's Proposed Management Zoning Map is included as Figure 3-2. "Natural" management zones enco�r�pass the natural resource areas of the Park, and it is the predominant designation for the majority of the management zone areas. Most of the GSMNP, including much of the area encompassing the partial-build and build alternatives, is managed as a"Natural Environment - Type I" subzone. The GMP states, "In this subzone, visitor uses and park management practices are to be of a transient nature and non-motorized except in extreme emergencies Affected Environment — 3-8 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement involving either human safety or critical resource protection needs." The subzone includes most of an area (425,384 ac [172,147 ha]) recommended by the NPS for designation as a"Wilderness" area. Within the proposed "Wildemess" area is a large tract of land (44,170 ac [17,875 ha]) that was transferred to the NPS from the TVA in 1949. The tract is considered a"Reserved Rights" subzone within the "Special Use" management zone. Rights-of-way, water rights, burial rights, and other reserved rights restrict NPS management of this area. However, NPS maintains this area as if it were part of the "Natural" management zone to the fullest extent possible (NPS 1982b). In the viciniry of the project alternatives, there are two locations classified as "I�Tatural Environment - Type II" subzones. This subzone is designated for small tracts inside the Park boundary and tracts adjacent to development zones that are established for developed uses ar require mechanized equipment for entry, such as cemetery and utiliry access roads, stables, and paved or heavily used trails. Two such areas are a linear corridor that extends north fram Lake View Road, following Noland Creek, to Upper and Lower Noland Cemeteries, and an area along the backwaters of the Hazel Creek arm of Fontana Lake in the former town of Proctor, where the Proctor and Bradshaw cemeteries are located. Tbe "1�Tatural Environment - Type II" subzone along Noland Creek is outside the study corridors, although it could be affected by the project alternatives. The subzone along Haze] Creek at Proctor falls in the study corridor for the baseline North Shore Corridor Alternative. A"Development" management zone was established for areas with access roads, parking, interpretive facilities, camping, picnic grounds, buildings, or utiliry systems, as well as parking areas or storage facilities for Park operation and maintenance. In the vicinity of the project alternatives, a linear corridor along Lake View Road and an area around the Fontana Dam Area are classified as "Transportation" subzones, which is a classification for public road corridors. The "General Park Development" subzone classification consists of picnic areas, camping areas, lodging areas, interpretive centers, major parking areas, Park operational and maintenance facilities, and staff housing. A small area west of Forney Creek and north of Lake View Road has been given this designation. This area would be the location of the Laurel Branch Picnic Area and is currently undeveloped. The GSMNP GMP is further described in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park Section of the ECR, Section 3.1.1. 3.2.2.2.2 Other Plans No land use plans or zoning regulations are in effect for the portions of the study area under the jurisdiction of Bryson City, Swain County, or Graham County. The NCDOT Thoroughfare Plan for Bryson City, March 1993, states, "Future development is likely to occur west of town along US 19, due to favorable water and sewer conditions, reasonable accessibility, and topographic advantages. There is also some potential for redevelopment and infill in the central part of town. Significant portions of the land north of the Tuckasegee River are either inappropriately or inadequately utilized" (NCDOT 1993). Affected Environment — 3-9 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement The Land and Resource Management Plan (1986-2000) for Nantahala National Forest and the TVA land- management philosophy are described in the Land Use (Existing and Future) Section of the ECR, Section 3.1. 3.2.3 Utilities Electric power, natural gas, and water and wastewater facilities for the study area outside of GSMNP are discussed in the Utilities Section of the ECR, Section 3.14. 3.2.3.1 GSMNP Facilities within GSMNP that require utilities are concentrated around developed areas such as the visitor centers and the campgrounds. No utilities are provided within the study area portion of the Park. A power transmission line servicing Fontana Dam traverses the western portion of the study area within GSMNP's boundary. 3.2.3.2 TVA's Fontana Reservoir The TVA Fontana Reservoir provides 300 MW of electrical generating capacity and 583,000 acre-ft (774,383 ha-m) of flood starage capaciry. It also plays an important role in operation of downstream hydraulic plants operated by Tapoco and the TVA and in providing summer cooling water for downstream nuclear plants at Watts Bar, Sequoyah, and Browns Ferry. It is the largest tributary reservoir in terms of generating capacity and one of the most important tributary reservoirs in the operation of TVA's integrated river management system. Fontana Reservoir provides 300 MW of electrical generating capacity. The Tennessee Valley Public Power Association, Inc. (TVPPA) is the non-profit, regional service arganization that represents the interests of consumer-owned electric utilities operating within the TVA service area. They serve more than 8.5 million customers in Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Mississippi, Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina, although no customers are located within the study area (TVPPA 2003). TVA power is primarily distributed through municipal utilities and rural electric cooperatives. TVA directly serves customers at Fontana Village and in the Bee Cove area. Additional information on the TVA Fontana Reservoir is provided in the TVA Section of the ECR, Section 3.1.6. 3.2.4 Cultural Resources The study area's rich history is detailed in the Cultural Resources Existing Conditions Report, North Shore Road EIS, Swain and Graham Counties, North Carolina, by TRC Garrow Associates, Inc. (Webb 2004), and summarized in the ECR. As those reports show, many families in Swain and Graham counties have deep roots in the Little Tennessee Valley and the southern Appalachians. The area has witnessed Native Affected Environment — 3-10 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement American occupation for at least the past 10,000 years, including several hundred years of historic Cherokee presence. The Cherokees lost their lands north of the Tuckasegee and Little Tennessee rivers in the project area by treaty in 1819, and most were removed from the south portion of the study area via the Trail of Tears in 1838. Other Cherokees remained in the area, however, and formed the nucleus of the present-day Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. European-Americans began to enter the area primarily in the ] 820s, living first in dispersed settlements, some of which later developed into such communities as Bryson City, Bushnell, Proctor, Almond, and Judson. The relatively self-sufficient farming/herding/hunting lifestyles of the 19th century began to change with the arrival of the railroad and the beginning of logging and mining operations in the 1880s and 1890s. Lifestyles were modified greatly with the commencement of large-scale logging operations by about 1910. Lumber companies such as Ritter, Norwood, Whiting, and Montvale logged extensive parts of the study area before leaving the area in the late 1920s. By the time the lumber companies left, Alcoa (previously the Aluminum Company of America prior to a 1999 name change) had developed plans for Fontana Dam and Reservoir along the Little Tennessee and had begun buying bottomland in the area. TVA took over the Fontana Project in 1941 and completed construction of the dam and reservoir in 1944. Each of these varied occupations has potentially left physical traces that could constitute significant cultural resources, including archaeological sites and historic structures; there is also the potential for Traditional Cultural Properties (TCPs) in the study area. Due to the isolated nature of the North Share area and the lack of intensive recent development, very few detailed cultural resource studies had been conducted within the EIS study corridors prior to the present project. Since the size of the study areas has made a complete cultural resource inventory impractical, a phased approach to cultural resource identification and evaluation has been undertaken, as provided for under Protection of Historic Properties (36 CFR 800.4(b)(2)), the regulations implementing Section 106 of the NHPA [] 6 U.S.C. 470( fl]. Consequently, a combination of current documentation, historical information, field investigations, and physiographic-based predictive modeling has been used to provide information on the quantiry and likely distribution of cultural resources in the study area. The significance of these resources is evaluated in terms of their eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). The National Register Eligibility Criteria are outlined in 36 CFR 60.4, and state: The quality of significance in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects that possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling and association. (a). That are associated with events that have made a significant contriburion to the broad patterns of our history; or (b). That are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or (c). That embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction; or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic values; or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity wbose components may lack individual distinction; or (d). That have yielded, or may be likely to yield, informarion important in prehistory or history. The regulations also outline several criteria considerations that should be taken into account when evaluating eligibility of some types of resources. Affected Environment — 3-11 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement An NRHP-eligible property may also be eligible for determination as a National Historic Landmark (NHL). The NHL criteria are codifed in 36 CFR 65.4(a), Specifr-c Criteria ofNational Signifzcar�ce: The qualiry of national significance is ascribed to districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects that possess exceptional value or qualiry in illustrating or interpreting the heritage of the United States in history, architecture, archeology, engineering and culture and that possess a high degree of integriry of location, design, settin�, materials, workmanship, feeling and association, and: (1). That are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to, and are idenrified with, or that outstandingly represent, the broad national patterns of United States history and from which an understanding and appreciation of those patterns may be gained; or (2). That are associated importantly with the lives of persons nationally significant in the history of the United States; or (3). That represent some great idea or ideal of the American people; or (4). That embody the distinguishing characteristics of an architectural type specimen exceptionally valuable for a study of a period, style or method of construction, or that represent a significant, distinctive and exceptional entiry whose components may lack individual distinction; or (5). That are composed of integral parts of the environment not sufficiently significant by reason of historical association or artistic merit to warrant individual recognition but [that] collectively compose an entiry of exceptional historical or artistic significance, or outstandingly commemorate or illustrate a way of life or culture; or (6). That have yielded or may be likely to yield information of majar scientific importance by revealing new cultures, or by shedding light upon periods of occupation over large areas of the United States. Such sites are those which have yielded, or which may reasonably be expected to yield, data affecting theories, concepts and ideas to a major degree. The NHL regulations also include criteria considerations, which are contained in 36 CFR 65.4(b). 3.2.4.1 Archaeological Sites Information on previously recorded arcbaeological sites within the study corridors initially was obtained from the North Carolina State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO), GSMNP files, published reports, and through conversations with GSMNP personnel. Additional data on site occurrence were gathered during a preliminary reconnaissance in 2003 and an intensive sample survey in 2004. Finally, information on potential site locations was gathered through examination of historic period maps and records and through geographic information system- (GIS) based landform analyses. Prior to the current EIS effort, the only systematic archaeological survey within the study corridors was a 1997 survey of areas to be affected by trail renovations in the Forney Creek and Hazel Creelc areas (Cornelison et al. l 999). That survey recorded six sites (31 SW336, 31 SW338, 31 SW340, 3] SW341, 31 SW342, and 31 SW343) within the study corridors. Only three other sites (31 SW53, 31 SW56, and 31 SW57) had been recorded in the study corridors prior to 2004; all were found during reconnaissance-level surveys conducted by early Park employees (George McPherson and Hiram Wilburn) in 1936 and 1940. An intensive survey of 800 ac (323.7 ha) in tbe eastern part of the study corridors was conducted in 2004 as part of the present EIS project (Webb and Jones 2005). That survey recorded 28 new sites or isolated finds within the corridors (in addition to reexamining previously recorded site 31 SW336), thereby accounting for 75.7 percent of the 37 known archaeological resources present in that area (Table 3-1). Affected Environment — 3-12 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement NC State No. Recorded Sites 31 SW 053 31 SW 056 31 SW 057 31 SW 336 31 SW 338 31 SW 340 31 SW 341 31 SW 342 31 SW 343 31 SW419 31 SW420 31 SW421 31 SW422 31 SW423 31 SW424 31 SW425 31 SW426 31 SW427 31 SW428 31 SW429 31 SW430 31 SW431 Table 3-1. Archaeological Sites and Isolated Finds in North Shore Road EIS Study Corridors United States Geological Survey (USGS) Quadrangle Fontana Dam Tuskeegee Tuskeegee Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Tuskeegee Tuskeegee Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Component(s) Prehistoric: Early Archaic, Middle Archaic, Early Woodland, Middle Woodland, Late Woodland, Pisgah (Mississippian) Prehistoric: Early Archaic, Middle Archaic; Woodland Prehistoric: Middle Archaic, Late Archaic Prehistoric: Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, Middle Woodland; Mississippian/Historic Cherokee; Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century Historic: 19th-20th century Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Middle Archaic, Early Woodland; Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Late Archaic; Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, Early Woodland; Historic Cherokee; Historic: 19th- 20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Historic: 19th-20th century Affected Environment — 3-13 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement National Register Status Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Eligible Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Eligible Eligible Eligible Eligible Eligible Unassessed Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Unassessed NC State No. 31 SW432 31 SW433 31 SW434 31 SW435 31 SW436 31 SW437 31 SW438 31 SW439 31 SW440 31 SW441 31 SW442 31 SW443 31 SW444 31 SW445 31 SW448 Unrecorded Sites Unrecorded - 2 Unrecorded - 3 Unrecorded - 4 Unrecorded - 5 Unrecorded - 6 Unrecorded - 8 Table 3-1. Archaeological Sites and Isolated Finds in North Shore Road EIS Study Corridors United States Geological Survey (USGS) Quadrangle Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Noland Creek Component(s) Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century Historic: 19th-20th century Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic Historic: 19th-20th century Historic: 19th-20th century Historic: 19th-20th century Affected Environment — 3-14 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement National Register Status Unassessed Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Not Eligible Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Unassessed Twenty-eight (75.7 percent) of the 37 sites or isolated finds contain prehistoric American Indian or Historic Cherokee components. Seven of those sites or finds produced temporally diagnostic artifacts and contain at least 12 components dating to the Archaic period (pre-1000 B.C.), 7 dating to the Woodland period (ca. ] 000 B.C. to A.D. ] 000), and 3 representing Mississippian period (ca. A.D. ] 000 to 1350) or later Historic Cherokee occupations. The ages of the prehistoric components at 21 otber sites or finds cannot presently be determined. Detailed data on site functions are not available, but all tbe prehistoric and Historic Cherokee sites appear to be habitation sites. Historic European-American components are present on at least 21 (56.8 percent) of the recorded sites or finds, with all of the recorded components apparently dating to the late-19th century or later. Most of those components appear to represent domestic occupations, but at least two may be associated with 20th century logging activity. Eight sites (31 SW336, 31 SW419, 31 SW422, 31 SW423, 31 SW424, 3] SW425, 31 SW426, and 31 SW428) that were recorded or revisited during the recent North Shore EIS survey (Webb and Jones 2005) have been determined eligible for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and the eligibility of another 15 (40.5 percent) of the recorded sites (including all tbose discovered during the 1997 or earlier work and not revisited during 2004) has not been assessed. However, the 23 sites are considered significant or potentially significant resources and must be considered in the EIS process. The remaining 14 sites and isolated finds (representing 37.8 percent of the total) have been detennined ineligible for the NRHP and require no further consideration in the planning process. Besides these 37 recorded sites, six other unrecorded sites were noted during a walkover of parts of the corridors by project personnel in 2003, but were not assigned site numbers. Those sites contain at least three unidentified prehistoric components and three late 19th to 20th century components. Like the unassessed recorded sites, these sites must be considered potentially significant resources and require consideration in the EIS process. Only about 7.8 percent of the approximately ] 0,260 ac (4,152 ha) (excluding parts of Fontana Lake) within the study corridors has been intensively surveyed, and it is evident that numerous additional prehistoric American Indian, Historic Cherokee, and Euro-American archaeologica] sites are probably present there. Information on the potential locations of these resources has been developed through the use of historic period data and landform-based predictive modeling of site locations. The fon�ner locations of many 19th to mid-20th century structures, each of which could represent a significant archaeological site, have been determined through examination of a variety of historic period maps, including early USGS planimetric and topographic maps, TVA land-acquisition maps, and others. A total of 202 former historic structure locations (including inundated locations, but excluding sheds, barns, and similar outbuildings) have been identified within the study corridors. Each of these locations could represent a significant (NHRP-eligible) archaeological site, as could some of the former roadways (including surviving segments of NC 288) in the project area. Many of these former structure locations and other potential historic period site locations are concentrated in the Proctor and Shehan Branch (Possum Hollow) areas of Hazel Creek. Affected Environment — 3-15 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement Previous regional studies (Joy 2002, 2003; Webb 2004:130-131), as well as 2004 project survey data (Webb and Jones 2005) indicate that the potential locations of most prehistoric American Indian, Historic Cherokee, and unmapped Historic Euro-American sites in the region can be predicted based on landform analysis. In particular, the data indicate that, except for specialized site types such as quarries, almost all such sites are located on areas possessing 15 percent or less slope. For example, Joy (2002, 2003) found that 100 percent of 250 components in the Santeetlah Lake area (southwest of the present study area) were situated in locations within roughly 984 ft(300 m) of water and possessing less than 15 percent slope. Similarly, a1120 sites and 11 isolated finds recorded or revisited during the 2004 survey were located on areas exhibiting l 5 percent or less slope (Webb and Jones 2005). In order to identify such areas within the project corridor, a slope model was generated based on a 33-ft (l0- m) (horizontal) interval Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the area obtained from the USGS (Webb 2004:131). That analysis indicates that about 1,590 unsurveyed ac (640 ha), ar about 15.4 percent of the unsurveyed parts of the study corridors (excluding Fontana Lake), have 15 percent or less slope and thus can be considered moderate to high probability areas for site occurrence. 3.2.4.2 Historic Structures Information on historic period structures in and adjacent to the study area was gathered from published surveys (e.g., Bisher et al. 1999) and NC SHPO and NPS files. The data indicate that there are no NRHP- listed structures in the study corridors within GSMNP, although one building, the Calhoun House at Proctor, is managed by GSMNP as an NRHP-eligible property. The Calhoun House is a frame dwelling that was built in l 928 at the close of the Ritter Lumber Company era. It was occupied by Granville and Lily Calhoun until 1944 and was later used far many years as the Hazel Creelc Ranger Station (Oliver 1989:93; 1998). A 1997 NPS condition assessment (Miri 1997) recommended removal of a 1966 NPS addition to restore the structure's � � "character and originality" as well as stabilization or reconstruction of a river rock wall and other protective measures. Those changes were completed between 1997 and 2000 (Kreusch, pers. comm. 2003). Besides the Calhoun House, a few other standing buildings within the study corridors may also be NRHP-eligible, including the dry kilns, pump house, valve house, and stream gauge at the Ritter � � ,;��-, � __ +� . _� ._ :, d� � �'6 � } �, �� � (� ���� ',i, "� ;�r: _ri un� _ ��,_ ��. - ___.,��. ._ I" - '��-.� -- Calhoun House, built in 1928 mill site in Proctor, and possibly former roads or railroad grades. The eligibility of those resources will require assessment if they are to be impacted by the project, along with associated ruins and archaeological deposits as part of a potential Proctar historic district. Fontana Dam is partly within the study corridors at their southwestern end and, along with its associated powerhouse, was determined eligible for tbe NRHP in 1992. The dam has also recently been recommended for study as a potential National Historic Landmark due to its association with World War II and the American Home Front, a recent National Historic Landscape Theme Study (Harper et al. 2004:155-156). Affected Environment — 3-16 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement 3.2.4.3 Cultural Landscapes Another potential type of cultural resource is the cultural landscape, which is defined as: a geographic area, including both natural and cultural resources, associated with a historic event, activity, or person. NPS recognizes four cultural landscape categories: historic designed landscapes, historic vernacular landscapes, historic sites, and ethnographic landscapes (NPS 1998a:87). The potential for historic vernacular landscapes and ethnographic landscapes in the study area was considered. As defined by the NPS (1998a:87), "historic vernacular landscapes illustrate peoples' values and attitudes towards the land and reflect patterns of settlement, use, and development over time." NPS has identified two potentia] cultural landscapes in the Proctor viciniry: the Calhoun House landscape and the Proctor/Ritter Lumber Mill landscape. These landscapes were evaluated by the NPS on April 15, 2005 (Chapman, pers. comm. 2005) and were determined not eligible far the NRHP. 3.2.4.4 Traditional Cultural Properties Traditional Cultural Properties (TCPs) are defined as places that are associated with the cultural practices or beliefs of a living community. Such properties can be detertnined eligible for the NHRP under Criterion A if they are rooted in that community's history and are important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity of the communiry, and they may also be eligible under other criteria (Parker and King 1992). Although TCPs are often thought of as Native American "sacred sites," they can also be traditional resource procurement areas (locations at which groups traditionally gathered foodstuffs, medicinal plants, or other materials) or sacred or secular locations important to other ethnic groups. Information on TCPs' locations and significance may not be published or otherwise widely disseminated because these details are frequently restricted to elders, religious leaders, or other specific segments of the community. Consequently, identifying TCPs is often a difficult and complicated process and may require extensive and intensive consultation with the communities involved. NPS is conducting nation-to-nation consultation with the EBCI and other American Indian groups in an attempt to identify TCPs related to those populations in the project area. Research has also been conducted to evaluate the potential for TCPs associated with non-A�nerican Indian populations in the project area. This research has focused on ihe cemetery "Decoration Day" beliefs and practices, which appear to represent a variant of a broader pattern of cemetery-related activities that is practiced in the Upland South and elsewhere. Historical data demonstrate that at least some cemeteries on what is now the North Shore of Fontana Lake were given special importance prior to the depopulation of the area in the 1940s (Oliver l 989:89). Priar to the creation of Fontana Lake in the early 1940s, local residents had the opporiunity to have family graves relocated from cemeteries that would be flooded, disturbed by dam construction, or made inaccessible by the construction of the dam and the resulting flooding of NC 288 (TVA 1950:509). While some people agreed to cemetery relocation, others chose not to ha�e graves moved from cemeteries located outside the reservoir pool. Some family members explain that their choices not to relocate graves were based on the promise of a new road to replace NC 288, which would facilitate access to Affected Environment — 3-17 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement graves remaining north of Fontana Lake (Appendix G). The Decoration Days described for the pre-1944 period were revived in the 1970s by former residents and their descendants, and since that time the NPS has provided annual ferry trips across the lake to access the North Shore cemeteries. These trips have helped to maintain local ties to the North Shore area as well as group identity among the people that were dispossessed of their former lands (Anonymous 1978; Cable l 998; Cantre112000; Chandler 1986; Holland 2001:193-194; Taylor 2001:141-142). For more information see the Park Policies Concerning Cemeteries: 1930s to 1960s Section of the North Shore Cemetery Decoration Project Report (Appendix G). The "Decoration Day" studies were conducted in July through November of 2004, and included extensive interviews as well as ethnographic fieldwork. Based on this work, the 27 North Shore cemeteries that are regularly decorated (Table 3-2), including a number that are outside the study corridors, have been determined to be constituents of an NRHP-eligible TCP and, for that reason, require consideration as part of the EIS process (Appendix G). The study also identified another potential TCP within the study corridor, consisting of the `Baptizing Hole" or "Sand Hole" in Hazel Creek at Proctor (Appendix G). Althougb this properry is located near the Proctar Cemetery, it is considered a separate property due to the different nature of the associated cultural practices. THIS SPACE HAS BEEN LEFT INTENTIONALLY BLANK. Affected Environment — 3-18 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement Table 3-2. Traditional Cultural Properties In and Adjacent to the Study Corridors North Shore Decoration Day Cemeteries Located in Studv Corridors McClure Mitchell Orr Payne Proctor Welch Woody Proctor Baptizing Hole' Other Bone Valley Bradshaw Branton Cable Cable Branch Calhoun Conner Cook Fairview Hall Higdon Hoyle Lower Noland McCampbell Gap Pilkey Posey Stiles Walker Wiggins Wike Note: Quadrangle Tuskeegee Tuskeegee Fontana Dam Fontana Dam Tuskeegee Tuskeegee Noland Creek Tuskeegee/Hazel Creek Tuskeegee Tuskeegee Bryson City Tuskeegee Tuskeegee Thunderhead Mountain Noland Creek Tuskeegee Tuskeegee Thunderhead Mountain Tuskeegee Noland Creek Noland Creek Thunderhead Mountain Tuskeegee Tuskeegee Noland Creek Thunderhead Mountain Clingmans Dome Silers Bald Drainage(s) Chambers Creek Chesquaw Branch Little Tennessee River Little Tennessee River Hazel Creek (Shehan Branch) Kirkland Branch Forney Creek (Woody Branch/Grav Wolf Creek) Tuskeegee/Hazel Creek Hazel Creek (Bone Valley Creek) Hazel Creek (Shehan Branch) Noland Creek Slick Rock Branch Hazel Creek (Cable Branch) Hazel Creek (Bee Gum Branch) Hickory Flat Branch Mill Branch Mill Branch area Hazel Creek (Big Flat Branch) Hazel Creek (Hall Gap Branch) Forney Creek (Bear Creek) Noland Creek Hazel Creek Pilkey Creek Pilkey Creek Hickory Flat Branch Hazel Creek (Walker Creek) Noland Creek Hazel Creek (Proctor Creek) 1 The Proctor Baptizing Hole TCP is potentially eligible for the NRHP. Affected Environment — 3-19 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement Decoration Date September - 1st Sunday September - 4th Sunday May - 2nd Sunday May - 2nd Sunday July - 1 st Sunday September - 1st Sunday May - 1st Sunday N/A June - 4th Sunday July - 1st Sunday April - 4th Sunday May - 3rd Sunday August - 1st Sunday October - 2nd Sunday June - 2nd Sunday July - 3rd Sunday July - 3rd Sunday June - 4th Sunday August - 3rd Sunday May - 1st Sunday April - 4th Sunday August - 3rd Sunday June - 1st Sunday June - 1st Sunday June - 2nd Sunday October - 2nd Sunday October - 4th Sunday October - 2nd Sunday 3.2.4.5 Other Cultural Resources �- Wa� = '�.��� �ie . '� r{t.'#.�ryL ..�"r�,4J a a3 -�''� � +. � _� .' ;',�.�i � ,�, �: °a Fi 1 I Y'�"py�� . :�:�r°�'�, �'� t�a �'''.y� '� 'rA.��'�`,� .�e� M+�' ,�� P-� • Ya� ' W1t�A � ����.:, '{ t� . ��, � ' , " �. � '�� � i,,.�� ���`' g�k "� �. ��-�'�:� ,.� ,�� �. ,, * `' .,-� r � �W. � � t,��,- � � �� ,� �:. a �. .�.-- •�,. �:,�,� � . �. 4:.:,,� AT was the first National Scenic Trail. Three other classes of cultural resources are not easily characterized but also merit consideration. Ethnographic landscapes are "associated with conteinporary groups and typically are used ar valued in traditional ways" (NPS 1998a:78), and are thus similar to TCPs (see Traditiona] Cultural Properties, Section 3.2.4.4). As mentioned above, given the history of the project area, there is some potential for ethnographic landscapes and TCPs associated with Cherokee populations in the area, and research and consultation conceming this topic are ongoing. The potential significance of 20th century hiking trails (and any older trails) also needs to be considered. The assembly or emigration routes associated with the Trail of Tears did not cross the study corridors, although there is potential for removal-related sites in the inundated areas around BushnelL There also are no known nineteenth or early twentieth century trails within the study corridors, but the corridors do cross the AT, the first long-distance hiking trail in the nation. Portions of the AT have been determined to be NRHP- eligible in other states (e.g., Goodwin and Associates 2004), and the part of the trail tbrough GSMNP is considered NRHP-eligible pending further study (Webb and Jones 2005). The only segment of the AT within the study corridors is an approximately 6,562-foot (2,000-m) section located north of Fontana Dam, which was created in 1946-1947 as part of a route change that brought the trail down from Doe Knob (on the crest of the Smokies) past Shuckstack to the Dam (ATC l 973:6-8), although other sections of the trail may also be indirectly impacted by some project alternatives. This resource will require evaluation should one or more of those alternatives be chosen for implementation. Additional information related to future evaluations is included in the PA (Appendix H). There are no potentially significant AT shelters within the study area (ATC 1973:8-1 l; Sommerville, pers. comm. 2003). There are no known hiking trails or shelters within the study corridors that were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (Chapman, pers. comm. 2003). Another class of cultural resource consists of cemeteries and other burial sites. Although cemeteries are generally not considered eligible for the NRHP, in some cases they have been determined eligible or listed either as part of larger NRHP districts or because they meet one ar more of the NRHP criteria considerations (Potter and Boland 1992). In the present case, as discussed above, a goup of 27 cemeteries north of Fontana Lake has been deterrnined NRHP-eligible as a TCP. Seven of those cemeteries (McClure, Mitchell, Orr, Payne, Proctor, Welch, and Woody) are within the study corridors, although access routes to a number of others could be affected by one or more project alternatives. Apart from their potential NRHP status, cemeteries also are protected by such federal and state statutes as the Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) (graves over 100 years old), the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) (Native American graves on federal land), and North Carolina General Statutes Chapters 65 and 70.3. Affected Environment — 3-20 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement 3.2.5 Parkland, National Forest, and Recreational Facilities Recreational opporiunities abound in the study area. NPS, USFS, and TVA all encourage the use of federally designated lands for recreation. The majority of the study area is within GSMNP. The AT crosses the western portion of tbe study area. Nantahala National Forest encompasses a portion of the study area south of Fontana Lake, and the TVA owns Fontana Lake and its shoreline. Information on the recreational opportunities of GSMNP and Nantahala National Forest is provided below. Other recreational opporiunities in the study area are discussed in the Parklands and Recreational Facilities Section of the ECR, Section 3.4. 3.2.5.1 Great Smoky Mountains National Park The NPS Organic Act of August 25, ] 916, staYes that the fundamental purpose of national parks is "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide far the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." GSMNP was established through legislation adopted by Congress on May 22, 1926 (44 Stat. 616). This Act states that GSMNP is "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." The Act directed that the newly created parlc be administered, protected and developed under the direction of the Secretary of Interior. The 1926 Act set the approximate acreage of GSMN P as 704,000 ac (284,893 ha), but specified that the minimum area to be administered and protected by the NPS had to be at least 150,000 ac (60,702 ha) before the Park would be established. On June 15, 1934, Congress approved an act (48 Stat. 964) acknowledging that 400,000 ac (161,817 ha) had been acquired within the boundaries of the GSMNP and that the GSMNP was "established as a completed park for administration, protection and development." This act stated that additional lands acquired for conservation or forestation purposes within the Park's authorized boundary would also be managed as directed by the May 22, 1926 Act. (GSMNP enabling legislation is included in Appendix Q.) The purpose of GSMNP is based on the NPS Organic Act, the legislation establishing the Park, and various reports and statements which express tbe intent of the original founders of the Park. As further refined in the Park's 2005-2008 Strategic Plan, the purpose of GSMNP is "to preserve its exceptionally diverse natural and cultural resources, and to provide for public benefit from and enjoyment of those resources in ways that will leave them basically unaltered by modern human influences." 3.2.5.1.1 Park Visitor Use, Operations, and Maintenance GSMNP, which encompasses more than 521,000 ac (210,842 ha), is the most visited national park in the nation (Cox 1998). Total recreation visits for 2004 were 9,167,046 (NPS 2005a). The highest recorded visitation occurred in 1999 when there were 103 million visitors. October is the single busiest month, according to Park officials. However, the months of June to August have the most visitors in a 3-month period. The Cooperative Park Studies Unit at the University of Idaho completed a visitor studies report for GSMNP in 1997 (NPS 1997). The studies were conducted in tbe summer and fall of 1996. In the sum�ner, Affected Environment — 3-21 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement 1,191 questionnaires were distributed with 919 returned, a response rate of 77 percent. The fall response rate was higher at 82 percent (1,158 questionnaires distributed and 945 returned). Family groups comprised ihe majority of summer and fall visitors. T'he age of visitors varied. Visitors aged 31 to 50 years old accounted for 39 percent of the visitors in the summer. Another 26 percent of summer visitors were 15 years old or younger. Fall visitors were older, with 45 percent aged 46 to 65 years old (Littlejohn 1997). International visitors accounted for 2 percent of the total visitors in both the summer and fall. Of the international visitors, the largest group was from England, totaling 23 percent in the summer and 26 percent in the fall. Of visitors from the United States, Tennessee and Florida residents make up the highest percentages. Tennessee residents accounted for 17 percent of the United States visitors in both seasons. Florida followed with 11 percent in the summer and ] 4 percent in tbe fall. GSMNP was the primary destination for over half of the visitors in the summer and fall. Furthermore, 65 percent of summer visitors and 79 percent of fall visitors had previously visited GSMNP (Littlejohn 1997). The most popular activities for summer and fall visitors were viewing scenery, wildlife, and wildflowers; photography; and visiting historic sites. Most visitors entered and exited the Park from Gatlinburg during both seasons. Approximately two-thirds of summer and fall visitors stayed less than one day in the Park. The most visited place in the Park was Cades Cove Loop Road (54 percent in the summer and 61 percent in the fall). The overall quality of services in the Park were rated as "good" or "very good" by 90 percent of visitors in the summer and 91 percent of visitors in the fall (Littlejohn 1997). The Park administers a permit system for use of its backcountry campsites to protect the Park and its resources. Through use of the system, the Park strives to offer the highest-quality visitor experience without degrading the natural environment. Approximately 13,000 backcountry permits are issued yearly (Minnigh 2003). On average, the permits are for 2.5 persons. The Park's 1982 GMP establishes long-range strategies for resource management and visitor use. In order to meet these objectives, tbe plan established management zones, which indicate appropriate uses, activities, and management actions for the Park. The management zones are discussed in Land Use (Existing and Future), Section 3.2.2. Administrative roads throughout GSMNP are used for maintenance and emergency response. In addition, the Park provides transportation to and/or maintains access (vehicular or pedestrian) to the cemeteries within its boundary. Within the study area, public vehicular access to most of the cemeteries was eliminated with the flooding of NC 288. For these cemeteries, annual access is provided by the NPS and includes boat access across Fontana Lake and vehicular access to, or to the vicinity of, the cemeteries. For those cemeteries accessible by land, the Park maintains access corridors to them. Refer to Cultural Resources, Section 3.2.4, for more information. Wildemess, as defined in the 1964 Wilderness Act, is "an area of undeveloped federal land retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally appears to have been affected Affected Environment — 3-22 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least 5,000 ac (2,020 ha) of land or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value." The Wilderness Act directed the secretary of the DOI to study all roadless National Park areas of 5,000 or more contiguous ac (2,020 ba) for wilderness designation. In accordance with these requirements, the NPS conducted a wilderness suitabiliry study of GSMNP and in 1966 released to the public a recommendation that approximately 247,000 ac (99,960 ha) be designated as wilderness in an effort to protect and perpetuate the Park's scenic and biotic resources. Due to public request for inclusion of additional lands in the designation, the NPS subsequently released a revised recommendation. President Ford transmitted the 1974 Wilderness Recommendation to Congress, accompanied by a DEIS. The recommendation proposed that 390,500 ac (158,030 ha) within the Park be designated as wilderness. However, Congress did not pass the 1974 recommendation, and in 1978 the DOI recommended that no action be taken until some resolution was reached concerning the 1943 Agreement pertaining to North Shore Road. The wilderness recommendation boundary is shown in Figure 3-2 along with the potential wilderness addition. In ] 979, another attempt was made to address the wilderness issue. This revision totaled 425,38� ac (172,147 ha) to include, among other things, the roughly 44,000-ac (17,800-ha) former North Shore/TVA tract. However, the revision was never transmitted to Congress. In 1999, the original GSMNP recommendation of 390,500 ac (158,030 ha) from 1974 was approved for retransmitta] to Congress because it was the only recommendation that had NEPA compliance documents. However, tbe CEQ was not willing to re-transmit the recommendations to Congress because the 1974 compliance documents were outdated. In light of the 1999 decision by CEQ, the designation of any lands within GSMNP as wilderness will require the completion of a new wilderness suitability assessment and proposal. NPS has determined that in light of the difficulties encountered in the previous wilderness proposals, any future consideration of wilderness designation should not take place until the North Shore Road issue is resolved. However, the Park currently manages all of the proposed area in accordance with NPS wilderness policies to preserve the characteristics that make it eligible as a designated wilderness. The portion of the study area within GSMNP, along with a larger portion of GSMNP contiguous to the study area, is one of the largest land tracts in the eastern United States that is not impacted by or easily accessible from modern roads. 32.5.12 Recreational Amenities and Facilities GSMNP accounts for roughly 52,600 ac (21,300 ha) of the study area. The Park's recreational facilities make it popular for both local and destination travel. The Park operates 10 developed campgrounds (frontcountry), which total approximately 980 campsites. In addition to the developed campgrounds, 89 backcountry campsites and I S backcountry shelters are available Affected Environment — 3-23 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement to overnight visitors (NPS GSMNP 2001). Vehicle access to the developed campgrounds is available, while campers are required to hike to the backcountry campsites. Approximately 850 mi (1,368 km) of hiking trails connect the backcountry campsites throughout the Park (NPS 2003a). Of the 850 mi (1,368 km) of hiking trails, approximately 550 mi (885 km) allow horses. In addition, there are five horse cainps in GSMNP. Although bicycles are not allowed on any trails within the study area, bicycles can travel on some trails and most roads within the remainder of the Park. Oconaluftee Visitor Center in Cherokee, NC. Three visitar centers are located within GSMNP: Cades Cove Visitor Center, Oconaluftee Visitor Center, and Sugarlands Visitor Center. Ranger-led programs are conducted seasonally from each of these visitar centers. Other places to visit within the Park include Cades Cove Loop Road, Foothills Parkway, Roaring Fork Motor Nature Trail, Cable Mill Complex (water-powered grist mill), Mingus Mill (turbin�powered grist mill), Newfound Gap, Clingmans Dome, Chimney Tops, Laurel Falls, Mountain Farm Museum, and Cataloochee. In addition, 27.5 mi (44 km) of the Mountains to Sea Trail (MST) traverses GSMNP northeast of the study area (LTNC 2003). When complete, the MST will cover approximately 900 mi (1,448 km) from Clingmans Dome in GSMNP to Jockey's Ridge State Park on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Currently, approximately 400 mi (644 km) are complete. The portion of GSMNP within the study area is considered backcountry. Backcountry campsites and trails are the only recreational facilities within the study area. Of the Park's 89 backcountry campsites, 22 are within the study area. Fifteen trails traverse the study area, providing access to these campsites. Within the study area, horses are allowed on all but one of the trails and in l4 of the campsites. 3.2.5.2 Appalachian National Scenic Trail The AT crosses tbe western portion of the study area. The AT covers 2,167 mi (3,487 km) from Katahdin Mountain in Maine to Springer Mountain in north Georgia, traversing 14 states (NPS 2004c). Completed in 1937, the trail was designated as the first National Scenic Trail by Congress when it passed the National Trails System Act of 1968. National Scenic Trails are defined by the act as "extended trails so located as to provide for maximum outdoor recreation potential and far the conservation and enjoyment of the nationally significant scenic, historic, natural, or cultural qualities of the areas through which such trails may pass" (NPS l 982b). The act lists facilities and uses that are allowed along the trail. As the longest unit of the National Park System, the AT provides opportunities far millions of visitors each year to experience countless wild, scenic, and pastoral settings. It also affords opportunities for continuous long-distance hiking that are unparalleled anywhere else in the world (NPS 2005b). Trail management within GSMNP is implemented through a backcountry management plan. The backcountry management plan meets the objectives of the Park's GMP (NPS 1982b). The 70-mi (1 ] 3-km) section of the AT in GSMNP contains only one road crossing at Newfound Gap. Roughly 6 mi (9.7 km) of the AT traverse the study area. Within the study area, the AT runs from Stecoah Gap northwest through Sweetwater Gap and crosses the Fontana Dam. Shuckstack marks the end of the AT within the study area. Horses are not allowed on the AT within Affected Environment — 3-24 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement the study area. However, horse use is allowed on other portions of the AT within GSMNP. Additional information on the AT's eligibiliry for the NRHP is included in Cultural Resources, Section 3.2.4. 3.2.5.3 Benton MacKaye Trail The Benton MacKaye Trail (BMT) is an alternative hiking route for AT hikers from Springer Mountain, Georgia, to Davenport Gap, Tennessee. The trail is nained in remembrance of Benton MacKaye, who originated the idea of the AT. It took 20 years of trail building to complete this 291-mi (468-km) trail. The Benton MacKaye Trail Association (BMTA) is a well organized group of volunteers who have been involved with the irail project from conception in ] 979 until April 2005 when construction was cotnplete. In November 2004, GSMNP signed an agreement with the BMTA to extend the trail through GSMNP. The agreement included provisions to utilize Lakeshore Trail; however, it noted that any portions of Lakeshore Trail eliminated by a study alternative would result in relocation of the BMT. This agreement was signed with the understanding tbat while trail impacts would be addressed in the EIS for existing Lakeshore Trail, impacts to the BMT would not be separately addressed. In May 2005, the BMTA marked the trail route through GSMNP on the existing trail corridors from Twenty Mile Ranger Station to Davenport Gap near the Big Creek Ranger Station. The trail dedication ceremony was held on July 16, 2005, on the Cherohala Skyway in the Cherokee National Forest. The route crosses the AT twice at opposite ends of the Park, creating a]oop hike of almost 180 mi (289.7 km) within GSMNP (BMTA 2005). The BMT, within the study area, includes the portion from the AT (at Sassafras Gap) along Lost Cove Trail and Lakeshore Trail (to the tunnel on Lake View Road) to Noland Creek Trail. 3.2.5.4 Nantahala National Forest Nantahala National Forest offers opportunities similar to those in GSMNP, as well as gamelands for hunting and inountain bike trails at the Tsali recreation area. The USFS Land and Resource Management Plan for Nantahala and Pisgah National Forests speaks to the location and type of recreational opportunities offered. It indicates approximately ] 80 developed recreation areas exist within Nantahala and Pisgab national forests, including campgrounds, picnic areas, trailheads, swimming, and observation areas, among others. The USFS also allows motarized recreation such as the use of off-road vehicles on approximately 100,000 ac (40,469 ha) of farest land (USDA 1987). The management plan's goals include "providing for a forest environment for the public to enjoy while complying with laws and regulations established for the administration of USFS lands, and to maintain the unique character of special interest and specially designated areas, including Wilderness, research natural areas, developed recreation and scenic areas, Native American religious sites, and significant cultural resources" (LJSDA ] 987). 3.2.5.5 Other Opportunities Recreational opportunities at Fontana Lake are also numerous. They include water skiing, canoeing, sailing, windsurfing, fishing, swimming, hiking, nature photography, picnicking, bird watching, and camping. Affected Environment — 3-25 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement TVA's Fontana Dam Visitor Center offers hot showers and picnic tables. The lake has boat docks and launching ramps. Fishing is popular at Fontana Lake with its abundant supply of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), brown trout (Salmo trutta), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), largemouth bass (Mic�opterus saln�oides), smallmouth bass (M. dolomieu), walleye (Sander vitreus), pike (Esox lucius), perch (Perca.flavescens), sunfish (Lepo�nis sp.), and crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus). The historic Fontana Village Resort is a year-round vacation spot whose appeal is in part due to its location adjacent to GSMNP. 3.3 Existing Physical Environment 3.3.1 Topography, Geology, and Soils The study area involves mountainous terrain with high ridges, steep slopes, and deep ravines. A considerable topographic relief of 3,650 ft (1,113 m) occurs across the study area. The geologic setting of the study area consists of highly deformed metamorphic Precambrian sedimentary rocks. These rocks have been folded and faulted in multiple uplift episodes, and the orientation of these rocks is highly variable. Area soils are derived from in-situ weathering of the parent rock; the steep slopes do not allow far thick soil development. Both the rock and soil contain sulfide minerals, which can produce acid drainage when disturbed and exposed to oxygen and water. The following paragraphs summarize these existing conditions, and a more detailed report is included in Appendix I. The terrain of the alternative corridors consists primarily of steep peaks, ridges and mountains with alternating ravines and benches. Specifically, this region consists of three distinct topographic settings. Broad to narrow flats form floodplains which have been incised by rivers and streams. Rolling hills and moderate slopes are found on lower intermediate mountains and side ridges. Finally, steep slopes are found on the larger high mountain divides. The elevations range from approximately 1,275 ft(389 m) msl to approximately 5,000 ft (1,524 m) msl. The study area lies within the Blue Ridge pbysiographic province of North Carolina. Locally within the alternative corridors, the rocks are comprised primarily of inetamorphic Precambrian sedimentary rocks of the Ocoee Supergroup. This group of rocks includes slates, phyllites, schists, and quartzites — all with varying degrees of inetamorphism. Approximately 10 mi (16 km) south, the Cherohala Skyway was constructed in the same group of rocks (Appendix L). During construction, it was realized that rocks of the Ocoee Supergroup contained enough iron-sulfide minerals to produce acid drainage when disturbed. This chemical reaction is caused when sulfide minerals oxidize resulting in the production of sulfuric acid, sulfate salts, and iron hydroxide. The pH of the drainage can vary from 2.0 to 4.5, which is acidic enougb to degrade the remaining ininerals in the rocks. Some rocks within the corridors contain heavy metal minerals (i.e., copper, lead, and zinc). When disturbed, these minerals can leach from the rock, mobilize, and concentrate to furkher degrade the quality of the drainage. Two Ocoee Supergroup rock formations underlie the alternative corridors, the Copperhill Formation and the slate of the Copperhill Formation. The Copperhill Formation is priinarily a light gray, coarse- and medium- grained, feldspathic metasandstone or metagraywacke with minar proportions of a graphitic and sulfidic mica schist. The Slate of the Copperhill Formation consists of dark-gray to black, graphitic, sulfidic slate, Affected Environment — 3-26 North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement