HomeMy WebLinkAbout3.23.1.3 Accident Analysis
Accident data were obtained from the Traffic Engineering Branch of the NCDOT for the study area. The
data include four mainline sections of US 74, US 19, NC 28, and Fontana Road and ten intersections along
these roadways. The data represent all reported accidents occurring within a 3-year period from the fall of
1999 through the fall of 2002.
During this 3-year period, 76 accidents were reported at the ] 0 intersections, and 208 accidents were reported
along approximately 54.6 mi (88 lcm) of primary mainline sections, between intersections, within the study
area. US 74 has an accident rate well below the average state rate, while US 19 has an accident rate
approximately 80 percent higher than the statewide average for rural US routes. The accident rate for NC 28
is approximately 45 percent higher than the North Carolina average. Rear-end accidents are the most
common accident type for intersections. Along mainline sections, "vehicles driving off the road" was the
most common type of accident.
A relatively large amount of motorcycle traffic is in the study area during the summer and fall months. The
region is very popular with motorcyclists, likely because of the scenic views and curved roadways.
Motorcycle racing has been reported along NC 28 between NC 143 and US 129 in Deals Gap. This activity
has contributed to a high probability for motorcycle accidents. Roughly 14 percent of mainline roadway
accidents involved motorcycles.
For specific corridor and intersection accident rates, refer to the Accident Analysis Section of the ECR,
Section 2.3.
3.2 Existing Human Environment
3.2.1 Socioeconomic and Community Features
The region surrounding the North Shore Road Project is rural, sparsely populated and growing more slowly
than the state of North Carolina, but at a moderate pace. The majority of lands in both Swain and Graham
counties are federally owned. Small communities and development are concentrated along major roads and
highways such as US l 9, US 74, and NC 28. Bryson City is the largest town in the area.
The area's economy is transitioning to a predominantly servic�based economy centered on tourism
associated with public and private outdoor recreation activities and other unique attractions such as the
GSMR and the Cherokee casino. Economic conditions lag state averages, despite gains since l 990.
The region has been shaped by historic Cherokee presence, early agricultural settlements, the timber
industry, mining operations, and major public warks that include the Fontana Dam, creation and expansion
of GSMNP, and USFS Nantahala National Forest creation and acquisitions.
Details of the area's history and its influence on people living in the area of the North Shore Road Project
today, are discussed in the Socioeconomic and Communiry Features and Cultural Resources sections of the
ECR (Sections 3.2 and 3.3, respectively).
Affected Environment — 3-4
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
3.2.1.1 Demographic Profile of Area
Accarding to U.S. Census data, population growth rates in the region lag statewide levels. Residents
identifying themselves as racially White comprise the largest share of the region's population. The largest
minority group in the region is Native American, with few other racial or ethnic minorities represented.
Household and individual incomes among residents have increased in recent years, but continuing a long-
tenn trend, still lag statewide averages. In part, that pattern reflects a relatively high dependency on seasonal
jobs and persistent high unemploy��nent in the wake of declining manufacturing across the region. Housing
values are below statewide averages and a larger share of the local housing supply is used on a seasonal,
recreational or occasional basis.
Accarding to U.S. Census data, the population of the region surrounding the project has grown since l 990,
although growth rates generally have lagged statewide population growth rates. Swain and Graham counties
had a combined population of 18,497 in 1990, 21,008 in 2000, and 21,120 in 2003. Between 1990 and 2000,
population growth was slowest in Graham County (11.2 percent), compared with population growth in
neighboring counties including Haywood (15.1 percent), Jackson (23.6 percent), Macon (26.9 percent) and
Swain (15.1 percent) counties. Growth in Swain Counry was driven in part by growth in Bryson Ciry (23.2
percent) that exceeded the statewide growth rate (21.4 percent) for the same period. Outside of Bryson City,
the other rapidly growing area in the vicinity of the project is on the south side of Fontana Lake. Moderate
population growth is projected to continue in the region, with Graham Counry projected to continue to grow
at a slower rate than neighboring counties.
2000 U.S. Census data indicates that the percentage of Swain County population that was racially White
(66.3 percent) was lower than the statewide percentage (72.1 percent). In Bryson Ciry, the White population
constituted 90.9 percent of the city's population, well above the statewide figure. The percentage of Swain
Counry residents classified as American Indian or Alaska Natives (29.0 percent) was substantially higher
than the statewide percentage of these populations (1.2 percent). In Bryson City the percentage of residents
classified as American Indian ar Alaska Natives (5.0 percent), while higher than the statewide percentage,
was well below the county level. These figures reflect the presence and location of the Qualla Boundary in
Swain Counry. The population of Graham County is much more homogeneous than those of Swain County
and the state, with the White population comprising 91.9 percent of the counry and Native Americans
comprising the largest racial minoriry at 6.8 percent. The Native American population percentages in both
Swain and Graham counties rose slightly from 1990 to 2000.
Household incames in the area surrounding the project increased between 1989 and 1999, but the median
household incomes of Graham County ($26,645) and Swain County ($28,608) continued to lag the statewide
average ($39,184) by considerable margins. According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, personal
incomes have continued to grow, reaching $166.] million in Graham County and $255.9 million in Swain
County in 2002. However, personal income in the two counties on a per capita basis in 2002 were still lower
than those in neighboring Haywood, Jackson and Macon counties, and the statewide average.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2000 median housing values in Swain and Graham counties and the
areas in proximity to the project were lower than the statewide median housing value. Both Swain and
Affected Environment — 3-5
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
Graham counties have much higher percentages of seasonal, recreation or occasional-use housing units than
the statewide percentage for such units.
More detailed data on population, demographic, housing and other trends can be found in the Demographic
Profile of the Project Study Area Section of the ECR, Section 3.2.1, as well as the Regional Economic
Impacts Technical Report (Appendix F). Census tracts and block groups are shown in Figure 3-1.
3.2.1.2 Community Facilities
The region is rural and sparsely populated, with the majoriry of community facilities in the viciniry of the
project located along NC 28 or US ] 9/LTS 74 and in Bryson City. Scattered residential development
(including vacation homes), small businesses, community centers, schools, churches, and cemeteries are
located in communities interspersed with USFS land from Bryson Ciry to Fontana Village. Bryson City is
the largest community in proximity to the project and is characterized by mare compact residential
development and larger commercial businesses serving tourists and residents of surrounding communities.
Swain County High School, which also houses the Swain County Center for the Arts, is north of Bryson City
along Fontana Road. GSMNP, the Nantahala National Forest, and Fontana Lake serve as major recreational
facilities not only for outside visitors, but also for residents of the co�nmunities in the region.
More detailed information on the individual communities and community facilities located near the project
can be found in the Community Facilities and Land Use Sections of the ECR (Sections 3.1 and 3.2.3,
respectively).
3.2.1.3 Economy and Employment
Center for the Arts at Swain County
High School holds drama and
cultural events for Bryson City.
The region surrounding the project is in transition from a resource-based
commodity production and manufacturing economy to a more service
and technology-oriented economic base. Various forms of outdoor
recreation and tourism, including scenic touring, heritage tourism, and
more recently, casino-style gaming and related entertainment on the
Cherokee Reservation, are becoming the dominant influences shaping
the region's economic base.
���ne combmea �ocai employment ot �wam ana Uranam counties m�uu�
was 10,596 part-time and full-time jobs. In Swain County, 60 percent of all employment is concentrated in
the retail trade, tourism-related services and government sectors. Graham County, with employment
concentrations in manufacturing, construction, transportation and utilities, has a more industrialized
economy compared to the economy of Swain County. Private and public sector enterprises in Swain and
Graham counties recorded total gross retail sales, including receipts of lodging accommodations, of $135.5
million in fiscal year 2003-04. Unemployment rates in the area have historically been higher than the
statewide average, although these rates have fallen substantially since the mid-1990s and the disparity from
the statewide average is less pronounced. Unemployment in the region fluctuates seasonally, with fullest
employment in summer and fall coinciding with the peak of tourism in the area. Many local residents
Affected Environment — 3-6
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
commute to jobs in neighboring counties in North Carolina and to locations in the surrounding states. In part,
such commuting reflects weaknesses in the local economy.
Attracting more than three million patrons per year, the casino in Cherokee has spawned extensive
commercial development, directly added more than 1,800 jobs, supported tribal infrastructure and program
development, and increased tribal and personal incomes of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (ECBI).
GSMN P, Blue Ridge Parkway, GSMR, Nantahala National Forest, and Fontana Lake host substantial
recreation visitation that further supports the region's economy. Additional visitation is generated by such
attractions as the Cherohala Skyway, Mountain Waters Byway, other scenic touring corridors, and a stretch
of US 129 in Tennessee and North Carolina known as the "Tail of the Dragon" that is especially popular
among motorcycle enthusiasts.
Swain and Graham counties are part of the congressionally-designated Blue Ridge National Heritage Area.
National Heritage Areas are regions where natural, cultural, histaric and recreational resources combine to
form a nationally distinctive landscape of human activity shaped by geography. Following designation, a
collabarative partnership between residents, private businesses, public sectar governmental entities, and non-
profit groups develops a strategy to plan and implement programs and projects that recognize, preserve and
celebrate the heritage of a region. Since its establishment in November 2003, various development initiatives
have been developed for the Blue Ridge National Heritage Area. These initiatives include one for Swain
County and one for the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBC�, which together outline $18.3 million in
projects and programs to achieve heritage development goals for the region.
Detailed information on population and employment trends can be found in the Regional Economic Impacts
Technical Report (Appendix F) as well as the Economy and Employment Section of the ECR, Section 3.2.4.
3.2.2 Land Use (Existing and Future)
3.2.2.1 Existing Land Use
Portions of the study area are within the planning jurisdictions of Swain Counry, Bryson Ciry, and Graham
County. The area has a large percentage of federally owned lands, including TVA-owned property,
GSMNP, and Nantahala National Forest. Swain County has roughly 80 percent of its land under federal
jurisdiction, while Graham County has over 50 percent under federal jurisdiction.
TVA has ownership of the land around Fontana Lake below 1,710 ft(521.2 m) in elevation from mean sea
level (msl), while GSMNP manages to the centerline of the lake. NPS has authority over GSMNP, while the
USFS has jurisdiction over Nantahala National Forest lands within the study area. Virtually all parklands
within the project vicinity are forested. Land surrounding the Park is primarily forested foothills and
mountains, and nearly all cultivatable land is farmed.
The study corridors are within GSMNP. GSMNP encompasses approximately 800 square miles (mi�) (2,072
km�) in Swain and Haywood counties in North Carolina, and Blount, Sevier, and Cocke counties in
Tennessee (NPS 2003a). GSMNP is designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
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North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
Organization (UNESCO) as an International Biosphere Reserve. UNESCO describes Biosphere Reserves as
"areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity
with its sustainable use" (UNESCO 2003). GSMNP is also one of 20 World Heritage Sites in the United
States. The World Heritage Convention is part of the International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS) of LTNESCO.
The North Carolina Natural Heritage Program (NCNHP) identifies, through various processes, Significant
Natural Heritage Areas (SNHA) across the state. A SNHA is an area of land or water identified as being
important for conservation of the State's biodiversiry and they generally contain one or more Natural
Heritage elements: high-quality or rare natural communities; rare species; and special animal habitats. These
areas, if not a�ailable for purchase, can be recognized through a Registry agreement, which is a voluntary
agreement with the landowner that provides limited protection but recognizes the owner's commitment to
conservation of the area. According to NCNHP, essentially the entire North Carolina portion of the Park is a
Registered Natural Heritage Area.
Land use within GSMNP is primarily preservation with appropriate recreational opporiunities. Hiking and
backcountry camping, as well as horseback use and fishing are the primary recreational uses that occur in
GSMNP in the project vicinity. Other visitor uses include educational activities (research, nature study) and
photography. GSMNP manages the portion of the Park within the study area as backcountry. Backcountry
campsites, trails, Lake View Road are the only facilities in the project vicinity. Visitor use is further
described in Park Visitor Use, Operations and Maintenance, Section 3.2.5.1.1.
In Bryson City, most development is situated linearly along main roads on non-federal lands. Land use in
downtown Bryson City is predominantly commercial business mixed with some residential development.
Land use surrounding Bryson City is predominantly scattered, larg�lot, residential development. Existing
land use in the study area is further described in the Land Use (Existing and Future) Section of the ECR,
Section 3.1.
3.2.2.2 Future Land Use and Planning
322.2.1 Great Smoky Mountains National Park
The GSMNP GMP, published in 1982, functions as a management guide for the Park. The Park's primary
purpose, as stated in the GMP is "to provide for visitor enjoyment compatible with preserving the rich
assemblage of natural resources." The GMP designates management zones to indicate appropriate uses,
activities, and management actions for the Parlc. The GMP's Proposed Management Zoning Map is included
as Figure 3-2.
"Natural" management zones enco�r�pass the natural resource areas of the Park, and it is the predominant
designation for the majority of the management zone areas.
Most of the GSMNP, including much of the area encompassing the partial-build and build alternatives, is
managed as a"Natural Environment - Type I" subzone. The GMP states, "In this subzone, visitor uses and
park management practices are to be of a transient nature and non-motorized except in extreme emergencies
Affected Environment — 3-8
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
involving either human safety or critical resource protection needs." The subzone includes most of an area
(425,384 ac [172,147 ha]) recommended by the NPS for designation as a"Wilderness" area.
Within the proposed "Wildemess" area is a large tract of land (44,170 ac [17,875 ha]) that was transferred to
the NPS from the TVA in 1949. The tract is considered a"Reserved Rights" subzone within the "Special
Use" management zone. Rights-of-way, water rights, burial rights, and other reserved rights restrict NPS
management of this area. However, NPS maintains this area as if it were part of the "Natural" management
zone to the fullest extent possible (NPS 1982b).
In the viciniry of the project alternatives, there are two locations classified as "I�Tatural Environment - Type
II" subzones. This subzone is designated for small tracts inside the Park boundary and tracts adjacent to
development zones that are established for developed uses ar require mechanized equipment for entry, such
as cemetery and utiliry access roads, stables, and paved or heavily used trails. Two such areas are a linear
corridor that extends north fram Lake View Road, following Noland Creek, to Upper and Lower Noland
Cemeteries, and an area along the backwaters of the Hazel Creek arm of Fontana Lake in the former town of
Proctor, where the Proctor and Bradshaw cemeteries are located. Tbe "1�Tatural Environment - Type II"
subzone along Noland Creek is outside the study corridors, although it could be affected by the project
alternatives. The subzone along Haze] Creek at Proctor falls in the study corridor for the baseline North
Shore Corridor Alternative.
A"Development" management zone was established for areas with access roads, parking, interpretive
facilities, camping, picnic grounds, buildings, or utiliry systems, as well as parking areas or storage facilities
for Park operation and maintenance. In the vicinity of the project alternatives, a linear corridor along Lake
View Road and an area around the Fontana Dam Area are classified as "Transportation" subzones, which is a
classification for public road corridors. The "General Park Development" subzone classification consists of
picnic areas, camping areas, lodging areas, interpretive centers, major parking areas, Park operational and
maintenance facilities, and staff housing. A small area west of Forney Creek and north of Lake View Road
has been given this designation. This area would be the location of the Laurel Branch Picnic Area and is
currently undeveloped.
The GSMNP GMP is further described in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park Section of the ECR,
Section 3.1.1.
3.2.2.2.2 Other Plans
No land use plans or zoning regulations are in effect for the portions of the study area under the jurisdiction
of Bryson City, Swain County, or Graham County. The NCDOT Thoroughfare Plan for Bryson City, March
1993, states, "Future development is likely to occur west of town along US 19, due to favorable water and
sewer conditions, reasonable accessibility, and topographic advantages. There is also some potential for
redevelopment and infill in the central part of town. Significant portions of the land north of the Tuckasegee
River are either inappropriately or inadequately utilized" (NCDOT 1993).
Affected Environment — 3-9
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
The Land and Resource Management Plan (1986-2000) for Nantahala National Forest and the TVA land-
management philosophy are described in the Land Use (Existing and Future) Section of the ECR, Section
3.1.
3.2.3 Utilities
Electric power, natural gas, and water and wastewater facilities for the study area outside of GSMNP are
discussed in the Utilities Section of the ECR, Section 3.14.
3.2.3.1 GSMNP
Facilities within GSMNP that require utilities are concentrated around developed areas such as the visitor
centers and the campgrounds. No utilities are provided within the study area portion of the Park. A power
transmission line servicing Fontana Dam traverses the western portion of the study area within GSMNP's
boundary.
3.2.3.2 TVA's Fontana Reservoir
The TVA Fontana Reservoir provides 300 MW of electrical generating capacity and 583,000 acre-ft
(774,383 ha-m) of flood starage capaciry. It also plays an important role in operation of downstream
hydraulic plants operated by Tapoco and the TVA and in providing summer cooling water for downstream
nuclear plants at Watts Bar, Sequoyah, and Browns Ferry. It is the largest tributary reservoir in terms of
generating capacity and one of the most important tributary reservoirs in the operation of TVA's integrated
river management system.
Fontana Reservoir provides
300 MW of electrical generating
capacity.
The Tennessee Valley Public Power Association, Inc. (TVPPA) is the
non-profit, regional service arganization that represents the interests of
consumer-owned electric utilities operating within the TVA service
area. They serve more than 8.5 million customers in Alabama, Georgia,
Tennessee, Mississippi, Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina,
although no customers are located within the study area (TVPPA 2003).
TVA power is primarily distributed through municipal utilities and rural
electric cooperatives. TVA directly serves customers at Fontana Village
and in the Bee Cove area.
Additional information on the TVA Fontana Reservoir is provided in the TVA Section of the ECR, Section
3.1.6.
3.2.4 Cultural Resources
The study area's rich history is detailed in the Cultural Resources Existing Conditions Report, North Shore
Road EIS, Swain and Graham Counties, North Carolina, by TRC Garrow Associates, Inc. (Webb 2004), and
summarized in the ECR. As those reports show, many families in Swain and Graham counties have deep
roots in the Little Tennessee Valley and the southern Appalachians. The area has witnessed Native
Affected Environment — 3-10
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
American occupation for at least the past 10,000 years, including several hundred years of historic Cherokee
presence. The Cherokees lost their lands north of the Tuckasegee and Little Tennessee rivers in the project
area by treaty in 1819, and most were removed from the south portion of the study area via the Trail of Tears
in 1838. Other Cherokees remained in the area, however, and formed the nucleus of the present-day Eastern
Band of Cherokee Indians.
European-Americans began to enter the area primarily in the ] 820s, living first in dispersed settlements,
some of which later developed into such communities as Bryson City, Bushnell, Proctor, Almond, and
Judson. The relatively self-sufficient farming/herding/hunting lifestyles of the 19th century began to change
with the arrival of the railroad and the beginning of logging and mining operations in the 1880s and 1890s.
Lifestyles were modified greatly with the commencement of large-scale logging operations by about 1910.
Lumber companies such as Ritter, Norwood, Whiting, and Montvale logged extensive parts of the study area
before leaving the area in the late 1920s. By the time the lumber companies left, Alcoa (previously the
Aluminum Company of America prior to a 1999 name change) had developed plans for Fontana Dam and
Reservoir along the Little Tennessee and had begun buying bottomland in the area. TVA took over the
Fontana Project in 1941 and completed construction of the dam and reservoir in 1944.
Each of these varied occupations has potentially left physical traces that could constitute significant cultural
resources, including archaeological sites and historic structures; there is also the potential for Traditional
Cultural Properties (TCPs) in the study area. Due to the isolated nature of the North Share area and the lack
of intensive recent development, very few detailed cultural resource studies had been conducted within the
EIS study corridors prior to the present project. Since the size of the study areas has made a complete
cultural resource inventory impractical, a phased approach to cultural resource identification and evaluation
has been undertaken, as provided for under Protection of Historic Properties (36 CFR 800.4(b)(2)), the
regulations implementing Section 106 of the NHPA [] 6 U.S.C. 470( fl]. Consequently, a combination of
current documentation, historical information, field investigations, and physiographic-based predictive
modeling has been used to provide information on the quantiry and likely distribution of cultural resources in
the study area.
The significance of these resources is evaluated in terms of their eligibility for the National Register of
Historic Places (NRHP). The National Register Eligibility Criteria are outlined in 36 CFR 60.4, and state:
The quality of significance in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture
is present in districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects that possess integrity of location,
design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling and association.
(a). That are associated with events that have made a significant contriburion to the broad patterns
of our history; or
(b). That are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or
(c). That embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction; or that
represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic values; or that represent a significant
and distinguishable entity wbose components may lack individual distinction; or
(d). That have yielded, or may be likely to yield, informarion important in prehistory or history.
The regulations also outline several criteria considerations that should be taken into account when evaluating
eligibility of some types of resources.
Affected Environment — 3-11
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
An NRHP-eligible property may also be eligible for determination as a National Historic Landmark
(NHL). The NHL criteria are codifed in 36 CFR 65.4(a), Specifr-c Criteria ofNational Signifzcar�ce:
The qualiry of national significance is ascribed to districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects
that possess exceptional value or qualiry in illustrating or interpreting the heritage of the United
States in history, architecture, archeology, engineering and culture and that possess a high degree
of integriry of location, design, settin�, materials, workmanship, feeling and association, and:
(1). That are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to, and are idenrified
with, or that outstandingly represent, the broad national patterns of United States history and from
which an understanding and appreciation of those patterns may be gained; or
(2). That are associated importantly with the lives of persons nationally significant in the history of
the United States; or
(3). That represent some great idea or ideal of the American people; or
(4). That embody the distinguishing characteristics of an architectural type specimen exceptionally
valuable for a study of a period, style or method of construction, or that represent a significant,
distinctive and exceptional entiry whose components may lack individual distinction; or
(5). That are composed of integral parts of the environment not sufficiently significant by reason of
historical association or artistic merit to warrant individual recognition but [that] collectively
compose an entiry of exceptional historical or artistic significance, or outstandingly commemorate
or illustrate a way of life or culture; or
(6). That have yielded or may be likely to yield information of majar scientific importance by
revealing new cultures, or by shedding light upon periods of occupation over large areas of the
United States. Such sites are those which have yielded, or which may reasonably be expected to
yield, data affecting theories, concepts and ideas to a major degree.
The NHL regulations also include criteria considerations, which are contained in 36 CFR 65.4(b).
3.2.4.1 Archaeological Sites
Information on previously recorded arcbaeological sites within the study corridors initially was obtained
from the North Carolina State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO), GSMNP files, published reports, and
through conversations with GSMNP personnel. Additional data on site occurrence were gathered during a
preliminary reconnaissance in 2003 and an intensive sample survey in 2004. Finally, information on
potential site locations was gathered through examination of historic period maps and records and through
geographic information system- (GIS) based landform analyses.
Prior to the current EIS effort, the only systematic archaeological survey within the study corridors was a
1997 survey of areas to be affected by trail renovations in the Forney Creek and Hazel Creelc areas
(Cornelison et al. l 999). That survey recorded six sites (31 SW336, 31 SW338, 31 SW340, 3] SW341,
31 SW342, and 31 SW343) within the study corridors. Only three other sites (31 SW53, 31 SW56, and
31 SW57) had been recorded in the study corridors prior to 2004; all were found during reconnaissance-level
surveys conducted by early Park employees (George McPherson and Hiram Wilburn) in 1936 and 1940.
An intensive survey of 800 ac (323.7 ha) in tbe eastern part of the study corridors was conducted in 2004 as
part of the present EIS project (Webb and Jones 2005). That survey recorded 28 new sites or isolated finds
within the corridors (in addition to reexamining previously recorded site 31 SW336), thereby accounting for
75.7 percent of the 37 known archaeological resources present in that area (Table 3-1).
Affected Environment — 3-12
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
NC State No.
Recorded Sites
31 SW 053
31 SW 056
31 SW 057
31 SW 336
31 SW 338
31 SW 340
31 SW 341
31 SW 342
31 SW 343
31 SW419
31 SW420
31 SW421
31 SW422
31 SW423
31 SW424
31 SW425
31 SW426
31 SW427
31 SW428
31 SW429
31 SW430
31 SW431
Table 3-1. Archaeological Sites and Isolated Finds in North Shore Road EIS Study Corridors
United States Geological
Survey (USGS) Quadrangle
Fontana Dam
Tuskeegee
Tuskeegee
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Tuskeegee
Tuskeegee
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Component(s)
Prehistoric: Early Archaic, Middle Archaic, Early Woodland, Middle Woodland, Late Woodland,
Pisgah (Mississippian)
Prehistoric: Early Archaic, Middle Archaic; Woodland
Prehistoric: Middle Archaic, Late Archaic
Prehistoric: Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, Middle Woodland; Mississippian/Historic Cherokee;
Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Historic: 19th-20th century
Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Middle Archaic, Early Woodland; Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Late Archaic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, Early Woodland; Historic Cherokee; Historic: 19th-
20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Historic: 19th-20th century
Affected Environment — 3-13
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
National Register Status
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Eligible
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Eligible
Eligible
Eligible
Eligible
Eligible
Unassessed
Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Unassessed
NC State No.
31 SW432
31 SW433
31 SW434
31 SW435
31 SW436
31 SW437
31 SW438
31 SW439
31 SW440
31 SW441
31 SW442
31 SW443
31 SW444
31 SW445
31 SW448
Unrecorded Sites
Unrecorded - 2
Unrecorded - 3
Unrecorded - 4
Unrecorded - 5
Unrecorded - 6
Unrecorded - 8
Table 3-1. Archaeological Sites and Isolated Finds in North Shore Road EIS Study Corridors
United States Geological
Survey (USGS) Quadrangle
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Component(s)
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic; Historic: 19th-20th century
Historic: 19th-20th century
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Prehistoric: Unknown Lithic
Historic: 19th-20th century
Historic: 19th-20th century
Historic: 19th-20th century
Affected Environment — 3-14
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
National Register Status
Unassessed
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Not Eligible
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Unassessed
Twenty-eight (75.7 percent) of the 37 sites or isolated finds contain prehistoric American Indian or Historic
Cherokee components. Seven of those sites or finds produced temporally diagnostic artifacts and contain at
least 12 components dating to the Archaic period (pre-1000 B.C.), 7 dating to the Woodland period (ca. ] 000
B.C. to A.D. ] 000), and 3 representing Mississippian period (ca. A.D. ] 000 to 1350) or later Historic
Cherokee occupations. The ages of the prehistoric components at 21 otber sites or finds cannot presently be
determined. Detailed data on site functions are not available, but all tbe prehistoric and Historic Cherokee
sites appear to be habitation sites. Historic European-American components are present on at least 21 (56.8
percent) of the recorded sites or finds, with all of the recorded components apparently dating to the late-19th
century or later. Most of those components appear to represent domestic occupations, but at least two may
be associated with 20th century logging activity.
Eight sites (31 SW336, 31 SW419, 31 SW422, 31 SW423, 31 SW424, 3] SW425, 31 SW426, and 31 SW428)
that were recorded or revisited during the recent North Shore EIS survey (Webb and Jones 2005) have been
determined eligible for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and the eligibility of another 15
(40.5 percent) of the recorded sites (including all tbose discovered during the 1997 or earlier work and not
revisited during 2004) has not been assessed. However, the 23 sites are considered significant or potentially
significant resources and must be considered in the EIS process. The remaining 14 sites and isolated finds
(representing 37.8 percent of the total) have been detennined ineligible for the NRHP and require no further
consideration in the planning process.
Besides these 37 recorded sites, six other unrecorded sites were noted during a walkover of parts of the
corridors by project personnel in 2003, but were not assigned site numbers. Those sites contain at least three
unidentified prehistoric components and three late 19th to 20th century components. Like the unassessed
recorded sites, these sites must be considered potentially significant resources and require consideration in
the EIS process.
Only about 7.8 percent of the approximately ] 0,260 ac (4,152 ha) (excluding parts of Fontana Lake) within
the study corridors has been intensively surveyed, and it is evident that numerous additional prehistoric
American Indian, Historic Cherokee, and Euro-American archaeologica] sites are probably present there.
Information on the potential locations of these resources has been developed through the use of historic
period data and landform-based predictive modeling of site locations.
The fon�ner locations of many 19th to mid-20th century structures, each of which could represent a
significant archaeological site, have been determined through examination of a variety of historic period
maps, including early USGS planimetric and topographic maps, TVA land-acquisition maps, and others. A
total of 202 former historic structure locations (including inundated locations, but excluding sheds, barns,
and similar outbuildings) have been identified within the study corridors. Each of these locations could
represent a significant (NHRP-eligible) archaeological site, as could some of the former roadways (including
surviving segments of NC 288) in the project area. Many of these former structure locations and other
potential historic period site locations are concentrated in the Proctor and Shehan Branch (Possum Hollow)
areas of Hazel Creek.
Affected Environment — 3-15
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
Previous regional studies (Joy 2002, 2003; Webb 2004:130-131), as well as 2004 project survey data (Webb
and Jones 2005) indicate that the potential locations of most prehistoric American Indian, Historic Cherokee,
and unmapped Historic Euro-American sites in the region can be predicted based on landform analysis. In
particular, the data indicate that, except for specialized site types such as quarries, almost all such sites are
located on areas possessing 15 percent or less slope. For example, Joy (2002, 2003) found that 100 percent
of 250 components in the Santeetlah Lake area (southwest of the present study area) were situated in
locations within roughly 984 ft(300 m) of water and possessing less than 15 percent slope. Similarly, a1120
sites and 11 isolated finds recorded or revisited during the 2004 survey were located on areas exhibiting l 5
percent or less slope (Webb and Jones 2005).
In order to identify such areas within the project corridor, a slope model was generated based on a 33-ft (l0-
m) (horizontal) interval Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the area obtained from the USGS (Webb
2004:131). That analysis indicates that about 1,590 unsurveyed ac (640 ha), ar about 15.4 percent of the
unsurveyed parts of the study corridors (excluding Fontana Lake), have 15 percent or less slope and thus can
be considered moderate to high probability areas for site occurrence.
3.2.4.2 Historic Structures
Information on historic period structures in and adjacent to the study area was gathered from published
surveys (e.g., Bisher et al. 1999) and NC SHPO and NPS files. The data indicate that there are no NRHP-
listed structures in the study corridors within GSMNP, although one building, the Calhoun House at Proctor,
is managed by GSMNP as an NRHP-eligible property. The Calhoun House is a frame dwelling that was
built in l 928 at the close of the Ritter Lumber Company era. It was occupied by Granville and Lily Calhoun
until 1944 and was later used far many years as the Hazel Creelc Ranger Station (Oliver 1989:93; 1998). A
1997 NPS condition assessment (Miri 1997) recommended
removal of a 1966 NPS addition to restore the structure's � �
"character and originality" as well as stabilization or
reconstruction of a river rock wall and other protective measures.
Those changes were completed between 1997 and 2000 (Kreusch,
pers. comm. 2003).
Besides the Calhoun House, a few other standing buildings within
the study corridors may also be NRHP-eligible, including the dry
kilns, pump house, valve house, and stream gauge at the Ritter
� � ,;��-, � __
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Calhoun House, built in 1928
mill site in Proctor, and possibly former roads or railroad grades. The eligibility of those resources will
require assessment if they are to be impacted by the project, along with associated ruins and archaeological
deposits as part of a potential Proctar historic district.
Fontana Dam is partly within the study corridors at their southwestern end and, along with its associated
powerhouse, was determined eligible for tbe NRHP in 1992. The dam has also recently been recommended
for study as a potential National Historic Landmark due to its association with World War II and the
American Home Front, a recent National Historic Landscape Theme Study (Harper et al. 2004:155-156).
Affected Environment — 3-16
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
3.2.4.3 Cultural Landscapes
Another potential type of cultural resource is the cultural landscape, which is defined as:
a geographic area, including both natural and cultural resources, associated with a historic event, activity,
or person. NPS recognizes four cultural landscape categories: historic designed landscapes, historic
vernacular landscapes, historic sites, and ethnographic landscapes (NPS 1998a:87).
The potential for historic vernacular landscapes and ethnographic landscapes in the study area was
considered. As defined by the NPS (1998a:87), "historic vernacular landscapes illustrate peoples' values and
attitudes towards the land and reflect patterns of settlement, use, and development over time."
NPS has identified two potentia] cultural landscapes in the Proctor viciniry: the Calhoun House landscape
and the Proctor/Ritter Lumber Mill landscape. These landscapes were evaluated by the NPS on April 15,
2005 (Chapman, pers. comm. 2005) and were determined not eligible far the NRHP.
3.2.4.4 Traditional Cultural Properties
Traditional Cultural Properties (TCPs) are defined as places that are associated with the cultural practices or
beliefs of a living community. Such properties can be detertnined eligible for the NHRP under Criterion A if
they are rooted in that community's history and are important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity
of the communiry, and they may also be eligible under other criteria (Parker and King 1992). Although
TCPs are often thought of as Native American "sacred sites," they can also be traditional resource
procurement areas (locations at which groups traditionally gathered foodstuffs, medicinal plants, or other
materials) or sacred or secular locations important to other ethnic groups. Information on TCPs' locations
and significance may not be published or otherwise widely disseminated because these details are frequently
restricted to elders, religious leaders, or other specific segments of the community. Consequently,
identifying TCPs is often a difficult and complicated process and may require extensive and intensive
consultation with the communities involved.
NPS is conducting nation-to-nation consultation with the EBCI and other American Indian groups in an
attempt to identify TCPs related to those populations in the project area.
Research has also been conducted to evaluate the potential for TCPs associated with non-A�nerican Indian
populations in the project area. This research has focused on ihe cemetery "Decoration Day" beliefs and
practices, which appear to represent a variant of a broader pattern of cemetery-related activities that is
practiced in the Upland South and elsewhere. Historical data demonstrate that at least some cemeteries on
what is now the North Shore of Fontana Lake were given special importance prior to the depopulation of the
area in the 1940s (Oliver l 989:89). Priar to the creation of Fontana Lake in the early 1940s, local residents
had the opporiunity to have family graves relocated from cemeteries that would be flooded, disturbed by
dam construction, or made inaccessible by the construction of the dam and the resulting flooding of NC 288
(TVA 1950:509). While some people agreed to cemetery relocation, others chose not to ha�e graves moved
from cemeteries located outside the reservoir pool. Some family members explain that their choices not to
relocate graves were based on the promise of a new road to replace NC 288, which would facilitate access to
Affected Environment — 3-17
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
graves remaining north of Fontana Lake (Appendix G). The Decoration Days described for the pre-1944
period were revived in the 1970s by former residents and their descendants, and since that time the NPS has
provided annual ferry trips across the lake to access the North Shore cemeteries. These trips have helped to
maintain local ties to the North Shore area as well as group identity among the people that were dispossessed
of their former lands (Anonymous 1978; Cable l 998; Cantre112000; Chandler 1986; Holland 2001:193-194;
Taylor 2001:141-142). For more information see the Park Policies Concerning Cemeteries: 1930s to 1960s
Section of the North Shore Cemetery Decoration Project Report (Appendix G).
The "Decoration Day" studies were conducted in July through November of 2004, and included extensive
interviews as well as ethnographic fieldwork. Based on this work, the 27 North Shore cemeteries that are
regularly decorated (Table 3-2), including a number that are outside the study corridors, have been
determined to be constituents of an NRHP-eligible TCP and, for that reason, require consideration as part of
the EIS process (Appendix G).
The study also identified another potential TCP within the study corridor, consisting of the `Baptizing Hole"
or "Sand Hole" in Hazel Creek at Proctor (Appendix G). Althougb this properry is located near the Proctar
Cemetery, it is considered a separate property due to the different nature of the associated cultural practices.
THIS SPACE HAS BEEN LEFT INTENTIONALLY BLANK.
Affected Environment — 3-18
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
Table 3-2. Traditional Cultural Properties In and Adjacent to the Study Corridors
North Shore
Decoration Day
Cemeteries
Located in Studv Corridors
McClure
Mitchell
Orr
Payne
Proctor
Welch
Woody
Proctor Baptizing Hole'
Other
Bone Valley
Bradshaw
Branton
Cable
Cable Branch
Calhoun
Conner
Cook
Fairview
Hall
Higdon
Hoyle
Lower Noland
McCampbell Gap
Pilkey
Posey
Stiles
Walker
Wiggins
Wike
Note:
Quadrangle
Tuskeegee
Tuskeegee
Fontana Dam
Fontana Dam
Tuskeegee
Tuskeegee
Noland Creek
Tuskeegee/Hazel Creek
Tuskeegee
Tuskeegee
Bryson City
Tuskeegee
Tuskeegee
Thunderhead Mountain
Noland Creek
Tuskeegee
Tuskeegee
Thunderhead Mountain
Tuskeegee
Noland Creek
Noland Creek
Thunderhead Mountain
Tuskeegee
Tuskeegee
Noland Creek
Thunderhead Mountain
Clingmans Dome
Silers Bald
Drainage(s)
Chambers Creek
Chesquaw Branch
Little Tennessee River
Little Tennessee River
Hazel Creek (Shehan Branch)
Kirkland Branch
Forney Creek (Woody
Branch/Grav Wolf Creek)
Tuskeegee/Hazel Creek
Hazel Creek (Bone Valley Creek)
Hazel Creek (Shehan Branch)
Noland Creek
Slick Rock Branch
Hazel Creek (Cable Branch)
Hazel Creek (Bee Gum Branch)
Hickory Flat Branch
Mill Branch
Mill Branch area
Hazel Creek (Big Flat Branch)
Hazel Creek (Hall Gap Branch)
Forney Creek (Bear Creek)
Noland Creek
Hazel Creek
Pilkey Creek
Pilkey Creek
Hickory Flat Branch
Hazel Creek (Walker Creek)
Noland Creek
Hazel Creek (Proctor Creek)
1 The Proctor Baptizing Hole TCP is potentially eligible for the NRHP.
Affected Environment — 3-19
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
Decoration Date
September - 1st Sunday
September - 4th Sunday
May - 2nd Sunday
May - 2nd Sunday
July - 1 st Sunday
September - 1st Sunday
May - 1st Sunday
N/A
June - 4th Sunday
July - 1st Sunday
April - 4th Sunday
May - 3rd Sunday
August - 1st Sunday
October - 2nd Sunday
June - 2nd Sunday
July - 3rd Sunday
July - 3rd Sunday
June - 4th Sunday
August - 3rd Sunday
May - 1st Sunday
April - 4th Sunday
August - 3rd Sunday
June - 1st Sunday
June - 1st Sunday
June - 2nd Sunday
October - 2nd Sunday
October - 4th Sunday
October - 2nd Sunday
3.2.4.5 Other Cultural Resources
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AT was the first National Scenic Trail.
Three other classes of cultural resources are not easily characterized
but also merit consideration.
Ethnographic landscapes are "associated with conteinporary groups
and typically are used ar valued in traditional ways" (NPS
1998a:78), and are thus similar to TCPs (see Traditiona] Cultural
Properties, Section 3.2.4.4). As mentioned above, given the history
of the project area, there is some potential for ethnographic
landscapes and TCPs associated with Cherokee populations in the
area, and research and consultation conceming this topic are
ongoing.
The potential significance of 20th century hiking trails (and any older trails) also needs to be considered.
The assembly or emigration routes associated with the Trail of Tears did not cross the study corridors,
although there is potential for removal-related sites in the inundated areas around BushnelL There also are no
known nineteenth or early twentieth century trails within the study corridors, but the corridors do cross the
AT, the first long-distance hiking trail in the nation. Portions of the AT have been determined to be NRHP-
eligible in other states (e.g., Goodwin and Associates 2004), and the part of the trail tbrough GSMNP is
considered NRHP-eligible pending further study (Webb and Jones 2005). The only segment of the AT
within the study corridors is an approximately 6,562-foot (2,000-m) section located north of Fontana Dam,
which was created in 1946-1947 as part of a route change that brought the trail down from Doe Knob (on the
crest of the Smokies) past Shuckstack to the Dam (ATC l 973:6-8), although other sections of the trail may
also be indirectly impacted by some project alternatives. This resource will require evaluation should one or
more of those alternatives be chosen for implementation. Additional information related to future
evaluations is included in the PA (Appendix H). There are no potentially significant AT shelters within the
study area (ATC 1973:8-1 l; Sommerville, pers. comm. 2003). There are no known hiking trails or shelters
within the study corridors that were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (Chapman, pers. comm.
2003).
Another class of cultural resource consists of cemeteries and other burial sites. Although cemeteries are
generally not considered eligible for the NRHP, in some cases they have been determined eligible or listed
either as part of larger NRHP districts or because they meet one ar more of the NRHP criteria considerations
(Potter and Boland 1992). In the present case, as discussed above, a goup of 27 cemeteries north of Fontana
Lake has been deterrnined NRHP-eligible as a TCP. Seven of those cemeteries (McClure, Mitchell, Orr,
Payne, Proctor, Welch, and Woody) are within the study corridors, although access routes to a number of
others could be affected by one or more project alternatives. Apart from their potential NRHP status,
cemeteries also are protected by such federal and state statutes as the Archaeological Resources Protection
Act (ARPA) (graves over 100 years old), the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
(NAGPRA) (Native American graves on federal land), and North Carolina General Statutes Chapters 65 and
70.3.
Affected Environment — 3-20
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
3.2.5 Parkland, National Forest, and Recreational Facilities
Recreational opporiunities abound in the study area. NPS, USFS, and TVA all encourage the use of
federally designated lands for recreation. The majority of the study area is within GSMNP. The AT crosses
the western portion of tbe study area. Nantahala National Forest encompasses a portion of the study area
south of Fontana Lake, and the TVA owns Fontana Lake and its shoreline. Information on the recreational
opportunities of GSMNP and Nantahala National Forest is provided below. Other recreational opporiunities
in the study area are discussed in the Parklands and Recreational Facilities Section of the ECR, Section 3.4.
3.2.5.1 Great Smoky Mountains National Park
The NPS Organic Act of August 25, ] 916, staYes that the fundamental purpose of national parks is "to
conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide far the
enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment
of future generations."
GSMNP was established through legislation adopted by Congress on May 22, 1926 (44 Stat. 616). This Act
states that GSMNP is "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people." The Act directed that the newly created
parlc be administered, protected and developed under the direction of the Secretary of Interior. The 1926 Act
set the approximate acreage of GSMN P as 704,000 ac (284,893 ha), but specified that the minimum area to
be administered and protected by the NPS had to be at least 150,000 ac (60,702 ha) before the Park would be
established. On June 15, 1934, Congress approved an act (48 Stat. 964) acknowledging that 400,000 ac
(161,817 ha) had been acquired within the boundaries of the GSMNP and that the GSMNP was "established
as a completed park for administration, protection and development." This act stated that additional lands
acquired for conservation or forestation purposes within the Park's authorized boundary would also be
managed as directed by the May 22, 1926 Act. (GSMNP enabling legislation is included in Appendix Q.)
The purpose of GSMNP is based on the NPS Organic Act, the legislation establishing the Park, and various
reports and statements which express tbe intent of the original founders of the Park. As further refined in the
Park's 2005-2008 Strategic Plan, the purpose of GSMNP is "to preserve its exceptionally diverse natural and
cultural resources, and to provide for public benefit from and enjoyment of those resources in ways that will
leave them basically unaltered by modern human influences."
3.2.5.1.1 Park Visitor Use, Operations, and Maintenance
GSMNP, which encompasses more than 521,000 ac (210,842 ha), is the most visited national park in the
nation (Cox 1998). Total recreation visits for 2004 were 9,167,046 (NPS 2005a). The highest recorded
visitation occurred in 1999 when there were 103 million visitors. October is the single busiest month,
according to Park officials. However, the months of June to August have the most visitors in a 3-month
period.
The Cooperative Park Studies Unit at the University of Idaho completed a visitor studies report for GSMNP
in 1997 (NPS 1997). The studies were conducted in tbe summer and fall of 1996. In the sum�ner,
Affected Environment — 3-21
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
1,191 questionnaires were distributed with 919 returned, a response rate of 77 percent. The fall response rate
was higher at 82 percent (1,158 questionnaires distributed and 945 returned).
Family groups comprised ihe majority of summer and fall visitors. T'he age of visitors varied. Visitors aged
31 to 50 years old accounted for 39 percent of the visitors in the summer. Another 26 percent of summer
visitors were 15 years old or younger. Fall visitors were older, with 45 percent aged 46 to 65 years old
(Littlejohn 1997).
International visitors accounted for 2 percent of the total visitors in both the summer and fall. Of the
international visitors, the largest group was from England, totaling 23 percent in the summer and 26 percent
in the fall. Of visitors from the United States, Tennessee and Florida residents make up the highest
percentages. Tennessee residents accounted for 17 percent of the United States visitors in both seasons.
Florida followed with 11 percent in the summer and ] 4 percent in tbe fall. GSMNP was the primary
destination for over half of the visitors in the summer and fall. Furthermore, 65 percent of summer visitors
and 79 percent of fall visitors had previously visited GSMNP (Littlejohn 1997).
The most popular activities for summer and fall visitors were viewing scenery, wildlife, and wildflowers;
photography; and visiting historic sites. Most visitors entered and exited the Park from Gatlinburg during
both seasons. Approximately two-thirds of summer and fall visitors stayed less than one day in the Park.
The most visited place in the Park was Cades Cove Loop Road (54 percent in the summer and 61 percent in
the fall). The overall quality of services in the Park were rated as "good" or "very good" by 90 percent of
visitors in the summer and 91 percent of visitors in the fall (Littlejohn 1997).
The Park administers a permit system for use of its backcountry campsites to protect the Park and its
resources. Through use of the system, the Park strives to offer the highest-quality visitor experience without
degrading the natural environment. Approximately 13,000 backcountry permits are issued yearly (Minnigh
2003). On average, the permits are for 2.5 persons.
The Park's 1982 GMP establishes long-range strategies for resource management and visitor use. In order to
meet these objectives, tbe plan established management zones, which indicate appropriate uses, activities,
and management actions for the Park. The management zones are discussed in Land Use (Existing and
Future), Section 3.2.2.
Administrative roads throughout GSMNP are used for maintenance and emergency response. In addition,
the Park provides transportation to and/or maintains access (vehicular or pedestrian) to the cemeteries within
its boundary. Within the study area, public vehicular access to most of the cemeteries was eliminated with
the flooding of NC 288. For these cemeteries, annual access is provided by the NPS and includes boat
access across Fontana Lake and vehicular access to, or to the vicinity of, the cemeteries. For those
cemeteries accessible by land, the Park maintains access corridors to them. Refer to Cultural Resources,
Section 3.2.4, for more information.
Wildemess, as defined in the 1964 Wilderness Act, is "an area of undeveloped federal land retaining its
primeval character and influence, without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected
and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally appears to have been affected
Affected Environment — 3-22
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has
outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least 5,000
ac (2,020 ha) of land or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired
condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic,
or historical value."
The Wilderness Act directed the secretary of the DOI to study all roadless National Park areas of 5,000 or
more contiguous ac (2,020 ba) for wilderness designation. In accordance with these requirements, the
NPS conducted a wilderness suitabiliry study of GSMNP and in 1966 released to the public a
recommendation that approximately 247,000 ac (99,960 ha) be designated as wilderness in an effort to
protect and perpetuate the Park's scenic and biotic resources. Due to public request for inclusion of
additional lands in the designation, the NPS subsequently released a revised recommendation. President
Ford transmitted the 1974 Wilderness Recommendation to Congress, accompanied by a DEIS. The
recommendation proposed that 390,500 ac (158,030 ha) within the Park be designated as wilderness.
However, Congress did not pass the 1974 recommendation, and in 1978 the DOI recommended that no
action be taken until some resolution was reached concerning the 1943 Agreement pertaining to North Shore
Road. The wilderness recommendation boundary is shown in Figure 3-2 along with the potential wilderness
addition.
In ] 979, another attempt was made to address the wilderness issue. This revision totaled 425,38� ac
(172,147 ha) to include, among other things, the roughly 44,000-ac (17,800-ha) former North Shore/TVA
tract. However, the revision was never transmitted to Congress. In 1999, the original GSMNP
recommendation of 390,500 ac (158,030 ha) from 1974 was approved for retransmitta] to Congress because
it was the only recommendation that had NEPA compliance documents. However, tbe CEQ was not willing
to re-transmit the recommendations to Congress because the 1974 compliance documents were outdated. In
light of the 1999 decision by CEQ, the designation of any lands within GSMNP as wilderness will require
the completion of a new wilderness suitability assessment and proposal. NPS has determined that in light of
the difficulties encountered in the previous wilderness proposals, any future consideration of wilderness
designation should not take place until the North Shore Road issue is resolved. However, the Park currently
manages all of the proposed area in accordance with NPS wilderness policies to preserve the characteristics
that make it eligible as a designated wilderness.
The portion of the study area within GSMNP, along with a larger portion of GSMNP contiguous to the study
area, is one of the largest land tracts in the eastern United States that is not impacted by or easily accessible
from modern roads.
32.5.12 Recreational Amenities and Facilities
GSMNP accounts for roughly 52,600 ac (21,300 ha) of the study area. The Park's recreational facilities
make it popular for both local and destination travel.
The Park operates 10 developed campgrounds (frontcountry), which total approximately 980 campsites. In
addition to the developed campgrounds, 89 backcountry campsites and I S backcountry shelters are available
Affected Environment — 3-23
North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
to overnight visitors (NPS GSMNP 2001). Vehicle access to the developed campgrounds is available, while
campers are required to hike to the backcountry campsites. Approximately 850 mi (1,368 km) of hiking
trails connect the backcountry campsites throughout the Park (NPS 2003a). Of the 850 mi (1,368 km) of
hiking trails, approximately 550 mi (885 km) allow horses. In addition, there are five horse cainps in
GSMNP. Although bicycles are not allowed on any trails within the study area, bicycles can travel on some
trails and most roads within the remainder of the Park.
Oconaluftee Visitor Center in
Cherokee, NC.
Three visitar centers are located within GSMNP: Cades Cove Visitor
Center, Oconaluftee Visitor Center, and Sugarlands Visitor Center.
Ranger-led programs are conducted seasonally from each of these visitar
centers. Other places to visit within the Park include Cades Cove Loop
Road, Foothills Parkway, Roaring Fork Motor Nature Trail, Cable Mill
Complex (water-powered grist mill), Mingus Mill (turbin�powered grist
mill), Newfound Gap, Clingmans Dome, Chimney Tops, Laurel Falls,
Mountain Farm Museum, and Cataloochee.
In addition, 27.5 mi (44 km) of the Mountains to Sea Trail (MST)
traverses GSMNP northeast of the study area (LTNC 2003). When
complete, the MST will cover approximately 900 mi (1,448 km) from Clingmans Dome in GSMNP to
Jockey's Ridge State Park on the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Currently, approximately 400 mi (644 km)
are complete.
The portion of GSMNP within the study area is considered backcountry. Backcountry campsites and trails
are the only recreational facilities within the study area. Of the Park's 89 backcountry campsites, 22 are
within the study area. Fifteen trails traverse the study area, providing access to these campsites. Within the
study area, horses are allowed on all but one of the trails and in l4 of the campsites.
3.2.5.2 Appalachian National Scenic Trail
The AT crosses tbe western portion of the study area. The AT covers 2,167 mi (3,487 km) from Katahdin
Mountain in Maine to Springer Mountain in north Georgia, traversing 14 states (NPS 2004c). Completed in
1937, the trail was designated as the first National Scenic Trail by Congress when it passed the National
Trails System Act of 1968. National Scenic Trails are defined by the act as "extended trails so located as to
provide for maximum outdoor recreation potential and far the conservation and enjoyment of the nationally
significant scenic, historic, natural, or cultural qualities of the areas through which such trails may pass"
(NPS l 982b). The act lists facilities and uses that are allowed along the trail. As the longest unit of the
National Park System, the AT provides opportunities far millions of visitors each year to experience
countless wild, scenic, and pastoral settings. It also affords opportunities for continuous long-distance hiking
that are unparalleled anywhere else in the world (NPS 2005b). Trail management within GSMNP is
implemented through a backcountry management plan. The backcountry management plan meets the
objectives of the Park's GMP (NPS 1982b). The 70-mi (1 ] 3-km) section of the AT in GSMNP contains
only one road crossing at Newfound Gap. Roughly 6 mi (9.7 km) of the AT traverse the study area. Within
the study area, the AT runs from Stecoah Gap northwest through Sweetwater Gap and crosses the Fontana
Dam. Shuckstack marks the end of the AT within the study area. Horses are not allowed on the AT within
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North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
the study area. However, horse use is allowed on other portions of the AT within GSMNP. Additional
information on the AT's eligibiliry for the NRHP is included in Cultural Resources, Section 3.2.4.
3.2.5.3 Benton MacKaye Trail
The Benton MacKaye Trail (BMT) is an alternative hiking route for AT hikers from Springer Mountain,
Georgia, to Davenport Gap, Tennessee. The trail is nained in remembrance of Benton MacKaye, who
originated the idea of the AT. It took 20 years of trail building to complete this 291-mi (468-km) trail.
The Benton MacKaye Trail Association (BMTA) is a well organized group of volunteers who have been
involved with the irail project from conception in ] 979 until April 2005 when construction was cotnplete. In
November 2004, GSMNP signed an agreement with the BMTA to extend the trail through GSMNP. The
agreement included provisions to utilize Lakeshore Trail; however, it noted that any portions of Lakeshore
Trail eliminated by a study alternative would result in relocation of the BMT. This agreement was signed
with the understanding tbat while trail impacts would be addressed in the EIS for existing Lakeshore Trail,
impacts to the BMT would not be separately addressed.
In May 2005, the BMTA marked the trail route through GSMNP on the existing trail corridors from Twenty
Mile Ranger Station to Davenport Gap near the Big Creek Ranger Station. The trail dedication ceremony
was held on July 16, 2005, on the Cherohala Skyway in the Cherokee National Forest. The route crosses the
AT twice at opposite ends of the Park, creating a]oop hike of almost 180 mi (289.7 km) within GSMNP
(BMTA 2005). The BMT, within the study area, includes the portion from the AT (at Sassafras Gap) along
Lost Cove Trail and Lakeshore Trail (to the tunnel on Lake View Road) to Noland Creek Trail.
3.2.5.4 Nantahala National Forest
Nantahala National Forest offers opportunities similar to those in GSMNP, as well as gamelands for hunting
and inountain bike trails at the Tsali recreation area. The USFS Land and Resource Management Plan for
Nantahala and Pisgah National Forests speaks to the location and type of recreational opportunities offered.
It indicates approximately ] 80 developed recreation areas exist within Nantahala and Pisgab national forests,
including campgrounds, picnic areas, trailheads, swimming, and observation areas, among others. The
USFS also allows motarized recreation such as the use of off-road vehicles on approximately 100,000 ac
(40,469 ha) of farest land (USDA 1987).
The management plan's goals include "providing for a forest environment for the public to enjoy while
complying with laws and regulations established for the administration of USFS lands, and to maintain the
unique character of special interest and specially designated areas, including Wilderness, research natural
areas, developed recreation and scenic areas, Native American religious sites, and significant cultural
resources" (LJSDA ] 987).
3.2.5.5 Other Opportunities
Recreational opportunities at Fontana Lake are also numerous. They include water skiing, canoeing, sailing,
windsurfing, fishing, swimming, hiking, nature photography, picnicking, bird watching, and camping.
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North Shore Road Final Environmental Impact Statement
TVA's Fontana Dam Visitor Center offers hot showers and picnic tables. The lake has boat docks and
launching ramps. Fishing is popular at Fontana Lake with its abundant supply of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), brown trout (Salmo trutta), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), largemouth bass
(Mic�opterus saln�oides), smallmouth bass (M. dolomieu), walleye (Sander vitreus), pike (Esox lucius),
perch (Perca.flavescens), sunfish (Lepo�nis sp.), and crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus). The historic
Fontana Village Resort is a year-round vacation spot whose appeal is in part due to its location adjacent to
GSMNP.
3.3 Existing Physical Environment
3.3.1 Topography, Geology, and Soils
The study area involves mountainous terrain with high ridges, steep slopes, and deep ravines. A
considerable topographic relief of 3,650 ft (1,113 m) occurs across the study area. The geologic setting of
the study area consists of highly deformed metamorphic Precambrian sedimentary rocks. These rocks have
been folded and faulted in multiple uplift episodes, and the orientation of these rocks is highly variable. Area
soils are derived from in-situ weathering of the parent rock; the steep slopes do not allow far thick soil
development. Both the rock and soil contain sulfide minerals, which can produce acid drainage when
disturbed and exposed to oxygen and water. The following paragraphs summarize these existing conditions,
and a more detailed report is included in Appendix I.
The terrain of the alternative corridors consists primarily of steep peaks, ridges and mountains with
alternating ravines and benches. Specifically, this region consists of three distinct topographic settings.
Broad to narrow flats form floodplains which have been incised by rivers and streams. Rolling hills and
moderate slopes are found on lower intermediate mountains and side ridges. Finally, steep slopes are found
on the larger high mountain divides. The elevations range from approximately 1,275 ft(389 m) msl to
approximately 5,000 ft (1,524 m) msl.
The study area lies within the Blue Ridge pbysiographic province of North Carolina. Locally within the
alternative corridors, the rocks are comprised primarily of inetamorphic Precambrian sedimentary rocks of
the Ocoee Supergroup. This group of rocks includes slates, phyllites, schists, and quartzites — all with
varying degrees of inetamorphism. Approximately 10 mi (16 km) south, the Cherohala Skyway was
constructed in the same group of rocks (Appendix L). During construction, it was realized that rocks of the
Ocoee Supergroup contained enough iron-sulfide minerals to produce acid drainage when disturbed. This
chemical reaction is caused when sulfide minerals oxidize resulting in the production of sulfuric acid, sulfate
salts, and iron hydroxide. The pH of the drainage can vary from 2.0 to 4.5, which is acidic enougb to
degrade the remaining ininerals in the rocks. Some rocks within the corridors contain heavy metal minerals
(i.e., copper, lead, and zinc). When disturbed, these minerals can leach from the rock, mobilize, and
concentrate to furkher degrade the quality of the drainage.
Two Ocoee Supergroup rock formations underlie the alternative corridors, the Copperhill Formation and the
slate of the Copperhill Formation. The Copperhill Formation is priinarily a light gray, coarse- and medium-
grained, feldspathic metasandstone or metagraywacke with minar proportions of a graphitic and sulfidic
mica schist. The Slate of the Copperhill Formation consists of dark-gray to black, graphitic, sulfidic slate,
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