Chapter 7

Chapter 7
Population Growth, Land Cover Changes, and Water
Quality in Western North Carolina

Once one of the most remote and sparsely populated regions of the state, western North Carolina
is now penetrated by modern interstates and highways that provide speedy access to the deepest
folds of the rugged terrain. This improved access coupled with an abundance of recreational
opportunities, cultural activities, and countless other amenities sets the stage for rapid population
increases. With this growth comes increased pressure on the natural environment. Every person
living in or visiting a watershed contributes to impacts on water quality. If water pollution is to
be eliminated, each individual should be aware of these contributions and take actions to reduce
them. The following section describes the most common impacts of human activity and offers
suggestions to lessen those impacts.

7.1 Impacts of Population Growth and Land Cover Changes

7.1.1 Rapid Urbanization

Population growth results in dramatic impacts on the natural landscape. The most obvious
impact is the expansion of urban and suburban areas. New stores, roads, and subdivisions are
products of growing populations. What is not so obvious is the astonishing rate at which rural
landscapes are converted to developed land. Between 1982 and 1997, the United States
population increased by 15 percent. Over the same period, developed land increased by 34
percent – more than double the rate of population growth (NRI, 2001; U.S. Census Bureau,
2000). Locally, the trend can be even more pronounced. For example, the urban area of
Charleston, SC expanded 250 percent between 1973 and 1994 while its population grew by 40
percent (Allen and Lu, 2000).

County populations in the Little Tennessee River basin are expected to grow by over 20 percent
between 2000 and 2020. Jackson and Macon may see growth exceeding 30 percent (See
Appendix I). If development patterns follow the trends described above, there could be a 40
percent increase in developed land in the Little Tennessee River basin by 2020. Such an increase
in developed land poses a significant threat to water quality and stream health because it will be
accompanied by a similar increase in impervious surfaces.

Impervious surfaces are materials that prevent infiltration of water into the soil and include
roads, rooftops, and parking lots (Figure 13). Impervious surfaces alter the natural hydrology,
prevent the infiltration of water into the ground, and concentrate the flow of stormwater over the
landscape. In undeveloped watersheds, stormwater filters down through the soil, replenishing
groundwater quantity with water of good quality.

Vegetation stabilizes the soil, slows the flow of stormwater over land, and filters out some
pollutants, by both slowing the flow of the water and trapping some pollutants in the root system.
As the imperviousness of a watershed increases, the greater volume of stormwater increases the
possibility of flooding and reduces the potential for pollutants to settle out, meaning that more
pollution is delivered to drinking water streams and aquifers. Too much paving and hardening of
Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality 107
a watershed can reduce infiltration and groundwater levels which in turn can decrease the
availability of aquifers, streams and rivers for drinking water supplies (Kauffman and Brant,
2000). It is well established that stream degradation begins to occur when 10 percent or more of
a watershed is covered with impervious surfaces (Schueler, 1995).

Figure 13 Impervious Cover and Surface Runoff (EPA, 2003)

7.1.2 Population Growth and Urbanization Impacts on Aquatic Resources

Urbanization poses one of the greatest threats to aquatic resources. The small towns and
communities in western North Carolina are usually not considered urban centers, but even small
concentrations of urbanizing areas have significant impacts on local waterways. For example, a
one-acre parking lot produces 16 times more runoff than a one-acre meadow (Schueler and
Holland, 2000). A wide variety of studies over the past decade converge on a central point:
when more than 10 percent of the acreage in a watershed is covered in roads, parking lots,
rooftops, and other impervious surfaces, the rivers and streams within the watershed become
seriously degraded. Brown trout populations have been shown to decline sharply at 10 to 15
percent imperviousness. If urbanized area covers more than 25 percent of a watershed, these
studies point to an irreversible decline in ecosystem health (Beach, 2002 and Galli, 1991).

Greater numbers of homes, stores, and businesses require greater quantities of water. Growing
populations not only require more water, but they also lead to the discharge and runoff of greater
quantities of waste and pollutants into the state’s streams, rivers, lakes and groundwater. Thus,
just as demand and use increases, some of the potential water supply is lost (Orr and Stuart,
2000).

As development in surrounding metropolitan areas consumes neighboring forests and fields, the
impacts on rivers, lakes, and streams can be significant and permanent if stormwater runoff is not
controlled (Orr and Stuart, 2000). As watershed vegetation is replaced with impervious surfaces,
the ability of the landscape to absorb and diffuse the effects of natural rainfall is diminished.
Urbanization results in increased surface runoff and correspondingly earlier and higher peak
streamflows after rainfall. Flooding frequency also increases. These effects are compounded
108 Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality

when small streams are channelized (straightened) or piped, and storm sewer systems are
installed to increase transport of stormwater downstream. Bank scour from these frequent high
flow events tends to enlarge streams and increase suspended sediment. Scouring also destroys
the variety of habitat in streams, leading to degradation of benthic macroinvertebrate populations
and loss of fisheries (EPA, 1999). See Figure 14.

Figure 14 Impervious Cover and Stream Degradation

7.2 Key Elements of a Comprehensive Watershed Protection Strategy

Extensive research on the impacts of development and alarming population growth projections
make it clear that comprehensive land use planning is necessary to protect aquatic resources. In
order for land use planning to effectively protect watersheds in the long-term, tools and strategies
must be applied at several scales. Effective implementation will require commitment ranging
from the individual citizen to the state government. A comprehensive watershed protection plan
should act on the following elements:

Basin Scale (Implemented by Town, County, and State Governments)
1. Characterize the watersheds within a basin as developed or undeveloped, identifying the
watersheds that are currently less than 10 percent impervious and those that are more than
ten percent impervious.
2. Focus new construction projects to the already developed watersheds first. Then assign
any construction that cannot be accommodated in developed watersheds to a limited
number of undeveloped watersheds. The watersheds to be developed should be
determined by their ecological importance and by other regional growth considerations,
such as the value of terrestrial ecosystems, the economic development potential as
determined by proximity to roads and rail lines, and the disposition of landowners in the
area toward land preservation and development.
3. Adopt policies that maintain impervious surfaces in undeveloped watersheds at less than
ten percent. These can include private conservation easements, purchase of development
Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality 109
rights, infrastructure planning, urban service boundaries, rural zoning (20-200 acres per
unit, depending on the area), and urban growth boundaries.
4. Ensure that local governments develop land use plans to provide adequate land for future
development within developed or developing watersheds.

Neighborhood Scale (Implemented by Town and County Governments)
1. Allow residential densities that support transit, reduce vehicle trips per household and
minimize land consumption. The minimum density for new development should be
seven to ten net units per acre.
2. Require block densities that support walking and reduce the length of vehicle trips.
Cities that support walking and transit often have more than 100 blocks per square mile.
3. Connect the street network by requiring subdivision road systems to link to adjacent
subdivisions.
4. Integrate houses with stores, civic buildings, neighborhood recreational facilities, and
other daily or weekly destinations.
5. Incorporate pedestrian and bike facilities (greenways) into new development and ensure
these systems provide for inter-neighborhood travel.
6. Encourage and require other design features and public facilities that accommodate and
support walking by creating neighborhoods with a pleasing scale and appearance. (e.g.,
short front-yard setbacks, neighborhood parks, alleys, and architectural and material
quality)

Site Scale (Implemented by Individual Property Owners, Developers, and Town and
County Governments)
1. Require application of the most effective structural stormwater practices, especially
focusing on hot spots such as high-volume streets, gas stations, and parking lots.
2. Establish buffers and setbacks that are appropriate for the area to be developed – more
extensive in undeveloped watersheds than in developed watersheds. In developed
watersheds, buffers and setbacks should be reconciled to other urban design needs such
as density and a connected street network.
3. Educate homeowners about their responsibility in watershed management, such as buffer
and yard maintenance, proper disposal of oil and other toxic materials, and the impacts of
excessive automobile use (Beach, 2002).

7.3 Focus Areas for Managing the Impacts of Population Growth

The elements of watershed protection listed in Section 5.2 above are intended to guide land use
planning and population density decision-making. This section discusses specific concepts
necessary to reduce the impacts of population growth.

7.3.1 Control Stormwater Runoff and Pollution

Introduction to Stormwater
Stormwater runoff is rainfall or snowmelt that runs off the ground and impervious surfaces (e.g.,
buildings, roads, parking lots, etc.). Because urbanization usually involves creation of new
impervious surfaces, stormwater can quickly become a major concern in growing communities.

The porous and varied terrain of natural landscapes like forests, wetlands, and grasslands traps
rainwater and snowmelt and allows them to filter slowly into the ground. In contrast, impervious
110 Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality

(nonporous) surfaces like roads, parking lots, and rooftops prevent rain and snowmelt from
infiltrating, or soaking, into the ground. Most of the rainfall and snowmelt remains above the
surface, where it runs off rapidly in unnaturally large amounts.

Common Pollutants in Stormwater
Storm sewer systems concentrate runoff into smooth, straight conduits. This runoff gathers
speed and power as it travels through the pipes. When this runoff leaves the storm drains and
empties into a stream, its excessive volume and power blast out streambanks, damaging
streamside vegetation and destroying aquatic habitat. These increased storm flows carry
sediment loads from construction sites and other denuded surfaces and eroded streambanks.
They often carry higher water temperatures from streets, rooftops, and parking lots, which are
harmful to the health and reproduction of aquatic life. The steep slopes and large elevation
changes in western North Carolina intensify this effect as water rushes downhill.

Storm sewers should not be confused with sanitary sewers, which transport human and industrial
wastewaters to a treatment plant before discharging into surface waters. There is no pre-
treatment of stormwater in North Carolina.
Common Stormwater Pollutants

• Sediment

• Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from
motor vehicles

• Pesticides and nutrients from lawns and
gardens

• Viruses, bacteria, and nutrients from pet
waste and failing septic systems

• Road salts

• Heavy metals from roof shingles, motor
vehicles, and other sources

• Thermal pollution from dark impervious
surfaces such as streets and rooftops
Uncontrolled stormwater runoff has many impacts
on both humans and the environment.
Cumulative effects include flooding, undercut and
eroding streambanks, widened stream channels,
threats to public health and safety, impaired
recreational use, and increased costs for drinking
and wastewater treatment. For more information
on stormwater runoff, visit the DWQ Stormwater
Permitting Unit at
http://h2o.enr.state.nc.us/su/stormwater.html or
the NC Stormwater information page at
http://www.ncstormwater.org/. Additional fact
sheets and information can also be found at
http://www.stormwatercenter.net/intro_factsheets.
htm and
www.bae.ncsu.edu/stormwater/index.html.

Controlling Stormwater Runoff and Pollution
Many daily activities have the potential to cause stormwater pollution. Any situation where
activities can contribute more pollutants to stormwater runoff is an area that should be
considered for efforts to minimize stormwater impacts. A major component in reducing
stormwater impacts involves planning up front in the design process. New construction designs
should include plans to prevent or minimize the amount of runoff leaving the site. Wide streets,
large cul-de-sacs, long driveways, and sidewalks lining both sides of the street are all features of
urbanizing areas that create excess impervious cover and consume natural areas. In many
instances, the presence of intact riparian buffers and/or wetlands in urban areas can reduce the
impacts of urban development. Establishment and protection of buffers should be considered
where feasible, and the amount of impervious cover should be limited as much as possible.

“Good housekeeping” to reduce the volume of stormwater leaving a site and reducing the amount
of pollutants used in our own backyards can also minimize the impact of stormwater runoff.
Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality 111
DWQ has published a pamphlet entitled Improving Water Quality in Your Own Backyard:
Stormwater Management Starts at Home. The pamphlet provides information on how
homeowners and businesses can reduce the amount of runoff leaving their property and how to
reduce the amount and types of pollutants in that runoff. This document is available on-line at
http://h2o.enr.state.nc.us/nps/documents/BackyardPDF.pdf or by calling [phone] ext.
558.

Preserving the natural streamside vegetation (riparian buffer) is one of the most economical and
efficient BMPs. In particular, forested buffers provide a variety of benefits including filtering
runoff and taking up nutrients, moderating water temperature, preventing erosion and loss of
land, providing flood control and helping to moderate streamflow, and providing food and
habitat for both aquatic and terrestrial wildlife (NCDENR-DWQ, 2004). For more information
or to obtain a free copy of DWQ’s Buffers for Clean Water brochure, call [phone], ext.
558.

7.3.2 Protect Headwater Streams

Many streams in a given river basin are only small trickles of water that emerge from the ground.
A larger stream is formed at the confluence of these trickles (Figure 15). This constant merging
eventually forms a large stream or river. Most monitoring of fresh surface waters evaluates these
larger streams. The many miles of small trickles, collectively known as headwaters, are not
directly monitored and in many instances are not even indicated on maps. These streams account
for approximately 80 percent of the stream network and provide many valuable services for
quality and quantity of water delivered downstream (Meyer et al., 2003). However, degradation
of headwater streams can (and does) impact the larger stream or river.

Figure 15 Diagram of Headwater Streams within a Watershed Boundary

There are three types of headwater streams: 1) perennial (flow year-round); 2) intermittent (flow
during wet seasons); and 3) ephemeral (flow only after precipitation events). All types of
headwater streams provide benefits to larger streams and rivers. Headwater streams control
flooding, recharges groundwater, maintain water quality, reduce downstream sedimentation,
recycle nutrients, and create habitat for plants and animals (Meyer et al., 2003).
112 Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality

In smaller headwater streams, fish communities are not well developed and benthic
macroinvertebrates dominate aquatic life. Benthic macroinvertebrates are often thought of as
"fish food" and, in mid-sized streams and rivers, they are critical to a healthy fish community.
However, these insects, both in larval and adult stages, are also food for small mammals, such as
river otter and raccoons, birds and amphibians (Erman, 1996). Benthic macroinvertebrates in
headwater streams also perform the important function of breaking down coarse organic matter,
such as leaves and twigs, and releasing fine organic matter. In larger rivers, where coarse
organic matter is not as abundant, this fine organic matter is a primary food source for benthic
macroinvertebrates and other organisms in the system (CALFED, 1999). When the benthic
macroinvertebrate community is changed or extinguished in an area, even temporarily, as occurs
during land use changes, it can have repercussions in many parts of both the terrestrial and
aquatic food web.

Headwater streams also provide a source of insects for repopulating downstream waters where
benthic macroinvertebrate communities have been eliminated due to human alterations and
pollution. Adult insects have short life spans and generally live in the riparian areas surrounding
the streams from which they emerge (Erman, 1996). Because there is little upstream or stream-
to-stream migration of benthic macroinvertebrates, once headwater populations are eliminated,
there is little hope for restoring a functioning aquatic community. In addition to
macroinvertebrates, these streams support diverse populations of plants and animals that face
similar problems if streams are disturbed. Headwater streams are able to provide these important
ecosystem services due to their unique locations, distinctive flow patterns, and small drainage
areas.

Because of the small size of headwater streams, they are often overlooked during land use
activities that impact water quality. All landowners can participate in the protection of
headwaters by keeping small tributaries in mind when making land use management decisions
on the areas they control. This includes activities such as retaining vegetated stream buffers,
minimizing stream channel alterations, and excluding cattle from streams. Local rural and urban
planning initiatives should also consider impacts to headwater streams when land is being
developed. For a more detailed description of watershed hydrology and watershed management,
refer to EPA’s Watershed Academy website at
http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/watershed/wacademy/acad2000/watershedmgt/principle1.html.

7.3.3 Reduce Impacts from Steep Slope Disturbance

Dramatic elevation changes and steep slopes define mountain topography. Building sites
perched along mountainsides provide access to unparalleled vistas and are a major incentive for
development. However, construction on steep slopes presents a variety of risks to the
environment and human safety.

Poorly controlled erosion and sediment from steep slope disturbance negatively impacts water
quality, hydrology, aquatic habitat, and can threaten human safety and welfare. Soil types,
geology, weather patterns, natural slope, surrounding uses, historic uses, and other factors all
contribute to unstable slopes. Steep slope disturbance usually involves some form of grading.
Grading is the mechanical excavation and filling of natural slopes to produce a level working
surface. Improper grading practices disrupt natural stormwater runoff patterns and result in poor
drainage, high runoff velocities, and increased peak flows during storm events. There is an
inherent element of instability in all slopes and those who choose to undertake grading and/or
Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality 113
construction activities should be responsible for adequate site assessment, planning, designing,
and construction of reasonably safe and stable artificial slopes.

In cases where construction activities occur on steep slopes, slope stabilization should be
mandated through a Site Grading Plan and/or Site Fingerprinting. Site Grading Plans identify
areas intended for grading and address impacts to existing drainage patterns. They identify
practices to stabilize, maintain and protect slopes from runoff and include a schedule for grading
disturbance as well as methods for disposal of borrow and fill materials. Site Fingerprinting is a
low-impact development (LID) best management practice (BMP) that minimizes land
disturbances. Fingerprinting involves clearing and grading only those onsite areas necessary for
access and construction activities. Extensive clearing and grading accelerates sediment and
pollutant transport off-site. Fingerprinting and maintenance of vegetated buffers during grading
operations provide sediment control that reduces runoff and off-site sedimentation (Yaggi and
Wegner, 2002).

Local communities also have a role in reducing impacts from steep slope development. These
impacts can also be addressed through the implementation of city and/or county land use and
sediment and erosion control plans. Land use plans are a non-regulatory approach to protect
water quality, natural resources and sensitive areas. In the planning process, a community
gathers data and public input to guide future development by establishing long-range goals for
the local community over a ten- to twenty-year period. They can also help control the rate of
development, growth patterns and conserve open space throughout the community. Land use
plans examine the relationship between land uses and other areas of interest including quality-of-
life, transportation, recreation, infrastructure and natural resource protection (Jolley, 2003).

Sediment and Erosion Control Plans are a regulatory approach to reducing the impacts of steep
slope development and ensure that land disturbing activities do not result in water quality
degradation, soil erosion, flooding, or harm to human health (i.e., landslides). The Division of
Land Resources (DLR) Land Quality Section (LQS) has the primary responsibility for assuring
that erosion is minimized and sedimentation is reduced during construction activities. Under the
Sedimentation Pollution Control Act, cities and counties are given the option to adopt local
ordinances that meet or exceed the minimum requirements established by the State. Local
programs must be reviewed and approved by the NC Sedimentation Control Commission. Once
approved, local staff performs plan reviews and enforces compliance. If for some reason the
local program is not being enforced, the NC Sedimentation Control Commission can assume
administrative control of the local program until the local government assures the State that it
can administer and enforce sediment and erosion control rules. The Sedimentation and Pollution
Control Act as well as an example of a local ordinance can be found on the DLR website
(http://www.dlr.enr.state.nc.us/pages/sedimentation.html).

The requirements outlined in the Sedimentation Pollution Control Act were designed to be
implementable statewide and may not fully capture the needs of mountain communities. For
example, only projects disturbing more than one-acre of land are required to produce a sediment
and erosion control plan. Many small construction projects fall below this threshold. In steep
mountainous terrain, even these small disturbances can produce an astounding volume of
sediment runoff. DWQ strongly encourages local governments to adopt Sediment and Erosion
Control ordinances that exceed the State’s minimum requirements.
114 Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality

7.3.4 Implement Effective Education Programs

North Carolina's natural resources are under stress and could be lost in the absence of a
widespread awareness of their existence, their significance and their value. Government officials,
business leaders and private citizens must better understand the complexity of the natural
ecosystems that support our quality of life and make this state an appealing place to live, work
and visit.

These natural resources are not isolated from each other or from the people; each element is part
of the ecosystem, interrelated and interconnected. When one part of the system is affected, other
parts feel the impact. Sound development decisions require an understanding of these
interconnections as well as of the life-support roles played by natural resources.

The cause and effect relationship between human behavior and the environment and the
economics of that relationship must be well understood by decision makers - including
individuals, business, industry, government, and elected officials - to instill a conservation ethic
and a sense of stewardship into the choices facing the state. Such stewardship of land, water, air
and biological resources is required to continue to enjoy the existing quality of life and to ensure
future improvements.

Environmental policy is often viewed as regulatory in nature. The coercive powers of the state
are limited, and no regulatory initiative that presses these limits can long survive. Environmental
quality ultimately depends upon the understanding and support of individual and corporate
citizens who come to embrace standards and practices that discourage pollution while they prize
high quality air, water and soil. This relationship between knowledge of the environment and
support for its protection form a basis of public policy development. While the need for
education to improve our understanding of ecology and environment is accepted as important,
the practice of environment education may take many forms. DWQ encourages implementation
of educational programs tailored to specific audiences that invoke the following principles:

1. Respect and care for the community of life.
All things are connected. When something affects one part of the environment, other
parts feel the impact. The more we understand and respect our own community, the better
we will understand this interconnectedness and our responsibilities to the global
community of life.

2. Improve the quality of human life.
The aim of development is to improve the overall quality of human life. Development
must enable all people to realize their potential and lead lives of dignity and fulfillment.
This kind of development requires a healthy and robust supporting ecosystem.

3. Conserve North Carolina's vitality and diversity.
Renewable natural resources are the base of all economies. Soil, water, air, timber,
medicines, plants, fish, wildlife and domesticated species -- all come from natural
systems and can be maintained through conservation.
Life support systems are the ecological processes that shape climate, cleanse air and
water, regulate water flow, recycle essential elements, create and regenerate soil and keep
our environment fit for life. We must prevent pollution and degradation of these
ecosystems as well as the natural plant and wildlife habitats they provide.
Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality 115
Biological diversity includes the total array of species, genetic varieties, habitats and
ecosystems on Earth. It contributes to our quality of life, including a healthy economy. It
is a foundation of the Earth's biosphere, buffering us from the inevitable changes in the
environment.

4. Change personal understanding and practice.
Society must promote values that build and support its ability to continuously improve
the quality of living for its citizens. This requires maintaining the quality and integrity of
our natural environment. Knowledge, awareness and decision-making skills must be
taught through formal and non-formal education to promote problem solving and
constructive action to nurture the life-giving qualities of our ecosystem.

5. Enable communities to care for their own environment.
Living within the limits set by the environment depends on the beliefs and commitment
of individuals, but it is through communities that people share concerns and promote
practices that can nourish rather than cripple their natural life-support systems.

6. Provide a state and local knowledge base for integrating development and
conservation.
Economic policy can be an effective instrument for sustaining ecosystems and natural
resources. Every economy depends on the environment as a source of life support and
raw materials. The knowledge base for each city, county and the state must be
strengthened, and information on environmental matters made more accessible. The
State's adult and student populations must understand certain ecological and civics
concepts, and North Carolina's place within those concepts.

7.4 The Role of Local Governments

7.4.1 Reducing Impacts from Existing Urbanization

Below is a summary of management actions recommended for local authorities, followed by
discussions on large watershed management issues. These actions are necessary to address
current sources of impairment and to prevent future degradation in all streams. The intent of
these recommendations is to describe the types of actions necessary to improve stream
conditions, not to specify particular administrative or institutional mechanisms for implementing
remedial practices. Those types of decisions must be made at the local level.

Because of uncertainties regarding how individual remedial actions cumulatively impact stream
conditions and in how aquatic organisms will respond to improvements, the intensity of
management effort necessary to bring about a particular degree of biological improvement
cannot be established in advance. The types of actions needed to improve biological conditions
can be identified, but the mix of activities that will be necessary – and the extent of improvement
that will be attainable – will only become apparent over time as an adaptive management
approach is implemented. Management actions are suggested below to address individual
problems, but many of these actions are interrelated (NCDENR-DWQ, 2003).

Actions one through five are important to restoring and sustaining aquatic communities in
watersheds, with the first three recommendations being the most important.

116 Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality

(1) Feasible and cost-effective stormwater retrofit projects should be implemented
throughout the watershed to mitigate the hydrologic effects of development (e.g.,
increased stormwater volumes and increased frequency and duration of erosive and scouring
flows). This should be viewed as a long-term process. Although there are many
uncertainties, costs in the range of $1 million per square mile can probably be anticipated.

(a) Over the short term, currently feasible retrofit projects should be identified
and implemented.
(b) In the long term, additional retrofit opportunities should be implemented in
conjunction with infrastructure improvements and redevelopment of existing
developed areas.
(c) Grant funds for these retrofit projects may be available from EPA initiatives,
such as EPA Section 319 funds, or the North Carolina Clean Water
Management Trust Fund.

(2) A watershed scale strategy to address toxic inputs should be developed and
implemented, including a variety of source reduction and stormwater treatment
methods. As an initial framework for planning toxicity reduction efforts, the following
general approach is proposed:

(a) Implementation of available BMP opportunities for control of stormwater
volume and velocities. As recommended above to improve aquatic habitat
potential, these BMPs will also remove toxics from stormwater.
(b) Development of a stormwater and dry weather sampling strategy in order to
facilitate the targeting of pollutant removal and source reduction practices.
(c) Implementation of stormwater treatment BMPs, aimed primarily at pollutant
removal, at appropriate locations.
(d) Development and implementation of a broad set of source reduction
activities focused on: reducing non-storm inputs of toxics; reducing
pollutants available for runoff during storms; and managing water to reduce
storm runoff.

(3) Stream channel restoration activities should be implemented in target areas, in
conjunction with stormwater retrofit BMPs, in order to improve aquatic habitat.
Before beginning stream channel restoration, a geomorphologic survey should be conducted
to determine the best areas for stream channel restoration. Additionally, it would be
advantageous to implement retrofit BMPs before embarking on stream channel restoration, as
restoration is best designed for flows driven by reduced stormwater runoff. Costs of
approximately $200 per foot of channel should be anticipated (Haupt, et al., 2002 and
Weinkam, 2001). Grant funds for these retrofit projects may be available from federal
sources, such as EPA Section 319 funds, or state sources including North Carolina Clean
Water Management Trust Fund.

(4) Actions recommended above (e.g., stormwater quantity and quality retrofit BMPs) are likely
to reduce nutrient/organic loading, and to some extent, its impacts. Activities recommended
to address this loading include the identification and elimination of illicit discharges;
education of homeowners, commercial applicators, and others regarding proper fertilizer use;
street sweeping; catch basin clean-out practices; and the installation of additional BMPs
targeting biological oxygen demand (BOD) and nutrient removal at appropriate sites.
Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality 117
(5) Prevention of further channel erosion and habitat degradation will require effective post-
construction stormwater management for all new development in the study area.

(6) Effective enforcement of sediment and erosion control regulations will be essential to the
prevention of additional sediment inputs from construction activities. Development of
improved erosion and sediment control practices may also be beneficial.

(7) Watershed education programs should be implemented and continued by local governments
with the goal of reducing current stream damage and preventing future degradation. At a
minimum, the program should include elements to address the following issues:

(a) Redirecting downspouts to pervious areas rather than routing these flows to
driveways or gutters;
(b) Protecting existing woody riparian areas on all streams;
(c) Replanting native riparian vegetation on stream channels where such
vegetation is absent; and
(d) Reducing and properly managing pesticide and fertilizer use.

7.4.2 Reducing Impacts of Future Urbanization

Proactive planning efforts at the local level are needed to assure that urbanization is done in a
manner that maintains water quality. These planning efforts will need to find a balance between
water quality protection, natural resource management, and economic growth. Managing
population growth requires planning for the needs of increased population, as well as developing
and enforcing environmental protection measures. These actions are critical to water quality
management and the quality of life for the residents of the basin. Public education is also needed
in the Little Tennessee River basin so that citizens can learn and understand the value of urban
planning and stormwater management.

Streams in areas adjacent to high growth areas of the basin are at a high risk of loosing healthy
aquatic communities. These biological communities are important to maintaining the ecological
integrity in the Little Tennessee River basin. Unimpacted streams are important sources of
benthic macroinvertebrates and fish for reestablishment of biological communities in nearby
streams that are recovering from past impacts or are being restored.

To prevent further impairment to aquatic life in streams in urbanizing watersheds local
governments should:

(1) Identify waters that are threatened by construction activities.
(2) Protect existing riparian habitat along streams.
(3) Implement stormwater BMPs during and after construction.
(4) Develop land use plans that minimize disturbance in sensitive areas of watersheds.
(5) Minimize impervious surfaces including roads and parking lots.
(6) Develop public outreach programs to educate citizens about stormwater runoff.
(7) Enact a Stormwater Control Ordinance. EPA offers a model ordinance at:
http://www.epa.gov/nps/ordinance/stormwater.htm

118 Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality

For more detailed information regarding
recommendations for new development found in the
text box, refer to EPA’s website at
www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy/acad2000/pr
otection, the Center for Watershed Protection website at
www.cwp.org, and the Low Impact Development
Center website at www.lowimpactdevelopment.org.
For an example of local community planning effort to
reduce stormwater runoff, visit
http://www.charmeck.org/Home.htm. For more
information on stormwater programs across the state,
refer to Chapter 6.
Planning Recommendations
for New Development

• Minimize number and width of residential
streets.
• Minimize size of parking areas (angled
parking & narrower slots).
• Place sidewalks on only one side of
residential streets.
• Minimize culvert pipe and hardened
stormwater conveyances.
• Vegetate road right-of-ways, parking lot
islands and highway dividers to increase
infiltration.
• Plant and protect natural buffer zones
along streams and tributaries.
• Minimize the use of curb and gutter

7.5 The Role of Homeowners and
Landowners

7.5.1 Ten Simple Steps to Reduce Runoff and Pollution from Individual Homes

1. To decrease polluted runoff from paved surfaces, households can develop alternatives to
areas traditionally covered by impervious surfaces. Porous pavement materials are
available for driveways and sidewalks, and native vegetation and mulch can replace high
maintenance grass lawns.
2. Homeowners can use fertilizers sparingly and sweep driveways, sidewalks, and roads
instead of using a hose.
3. Instead of disposing of yard waste, use the materials to start a compost pile.
4. Learn to use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in the garden and on the lawn to reduce
dependence on harmful pesticides.
5. Pick up after pets.
6. Use, store, and dispose of chemicals properly.
7. Drivers should check their cars for leaks and recycle their motor oil and antifreeze when
these fluids are changed.
8. Drivers can also avoid impacts from car wash runoff (e.g., detergents, grime, etc.) by
using car wash facilities that do not generate runoff.
9. Households served by septic systems should have them professionally inspected and
pumped every 3 to 5 years. They should also practice water conservation measures to
extend the life of their septic systems.
10. Support local government watershed planning efforts and ordinance development.
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120 Chapter 7 – Population Growth, Land Cover Changes and Water Quality