A Plan to Make Nags Head Less Vulnerable to the Impacts of Natural Hazards-1998

A PLAN TO MAKE NAGS HEAD, NORTH CAROLINA LESS VULNERABLE TO THE
E%IPACTS OF NATURAL HAZARDS
Board of Commissioners
Renee Cahoon, Mayor
Robert W. Muller, Mayor Pro Tem
George E Farah III
Douglas A Remaley
Brant Murray
Lillie W. Gray, Former Mayor Pro Tem
Town Manager
I Webb Fuller
Department of Planning and Development
Gary Ferguson, Director
Bruce M. Bortz, Planner
The preparation of this report was financed in part through a grant provided by the North
Carolina Coastal Management Program through funds provided by the Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972, as amended, which is administered by the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource
Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Prepared By
David I Brower
Anna K. Schwab
and
Bruce M. Bortz

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction...................................................... 1
A. The Town of Nags Head, North Carolina ........................... 1
B. Natural Hazards and Disasters ................................... 2
C. Vulnerability to Natural Hazards .................................. 3
D. Mitigation ..................................................3
E. Windows of Opportunity for Mitigation ............................ 5
H. Goals............................................................ 7
M. Natural Hazard Mitigation Policies .................................... 11
A Introduction ................................................. 11
B. Policy Statements ............................................ 11
IV. Evaluation, Revisions, Updates .................................... 25
Appendices
I. Hazard Identification, Definition, and Probability .................. 27
A. Hurricane ........................................... 27
B. Tornadoes ........................................... 34
C. Thunderstorms ......................................... 37
D. Nor'Easters........................................... 40
E. Sea. Level Rise .......................................... 43
F. Wildfire ........................................... 45
G. Flooding ........................................... 46
H. Dune Gaps ........................................... 47
I. Inlets Hazards .......................................... 47
II. Vulnerability Analysis ....................................... 51
A. Introduction ........................................... 51
B. Mapping Nags Head's Vulnerability .......................... 51
C. Charting Nags Head's Vulnerability .......................... 52
III. Capability Assessment ....................................... 53
IV. Maps and Charts ........................................... 59
V. References ........................................... 69

1
L INTRODUCTION
A. The Town of Nags Head, North Carolina
Nags Head is located on the Outer Banks, which is part of the chain of coastal barrier
islands in North Carolina. Nags Head is approximately 50 miles south of the Virginia border and
50 miles north of Cape Hatteras. The Town stretches along the coast for a distance of 12 miles in
a generally north -south direction and is bordered on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and on the
west by the waters of Roanoke Sound. At its widest point, two miles separate the ocean and the
sound; at its narrowest, only 1,600 feet separate these two bodies of water.'
The Town of Nags Head is a unique and attractive resort community. A number of
characteristics make it an attractive place to live or vacation. Among them are its proximity to
water and beaches, its abundance of open spaces, its generally low density of development, and
the overall quality of its natural environment. Nags Head is primarily an ocean -oriented
community. The Town is fortunate to have significant natural resources, including the ocean and
its beaches, the Sound, a complex natural area called Nags Head Woods (consisting of stable,
productive marshlands, fresh water ponds, and steep migrating and stabilized dunes) and unique
geological features like Jockey's Ridge. Nags Head is a recreational wonderland, closely tied to
its natural environment.
Nags Head, from its early beginnings in the 1800s, has consisted predominantly of single
family cottages and a few motels. Family operated businesses and cottage courts made up the
commercial sector of Nags Head. These factors contributed to a certain charm, and a slow and
relaxing pace of life. The Town has been and still is an annual vacation spot for countless number
of families who make repeat visits from the north. For many visitors and residents, Nags Head is
a "family beach."
Nags Head has been slow to develop when compared to other resort and vacation areas
along the east coast, e.g., Myrtle Beach, South Carolina; Ocean City, Maryland. This slow
growth has partly been a result of the remoteness of the Town. However, like all of the Dare
County beach communities, Nags Head, especially during the mid- to late 1980s, experienced
tremendous growth and development pressures. As an indication, the permanent population
increased 80 percent between 1980 and 1990. The most significant growth pressures in the Town
are, and will continue to be, generated by seasonal resort development.
The 1990 and 1996 Land Use Surveys of the attitudes of residents and property owners
found that most were in agreement that Nags Head should remain the family -oriented beach it has
been. The survey results also highlighted the high importance placed by residents and non-
resident property owners on the quality of the natural environment, including such things as
access to beaches and the protection of open space in the Town. Yet, the growth pressures which
1Town of Nags Head Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan, 1988.

2
Nags Head is currently feeling indicate that the Town has been "discovered," and that if our land
use policies are not adhered to, this discovery could put in jeopardy many of the features and
characteristics that make the Town such an attractive place in which to live and vacation.'
Local Town officials are committed to guiding the Towd's future growth so that the needs
of current residents are met, that visitors are accommodated, and that the natural environment is
afforded full due respect. This commitment is expressed in the Town's Vision Statement:
The Town of Nags Head is working to build a community populated by diverse
groups whose common bond is a love of the Outer Banks. We recognize that the
Town must be a good place to live before it can be a good place to visit. We
recognize that those who have lived on this land before us have forged our path and
that we must learn, from them and respect their memory. We recognize that our
natural environment is an integral part of our community and must be considered in
all decisions. We recognize that in order to secure this future we must work
together, treating all with respect and providing all with justice, keeping our
common goals in front of us and our petty differences behind us.
The Town of Nags Head is working to build a community with an economy based
on family vacation tourism. The base of that economy is the rental of single family
homes. Important elements in developing and maintaining this economy are:
- An ocean front beach that is accessible and usable, not blocked by large
structures.
A natural environment typified by clean waters and the natural landscape of sand
dunes and salt tolerant vegetation.
Commercial services provided by locally owned and operated businesses that
share in the building of our community.
Recreational amenities and attractions, both commercial and non-commercial
that are wholesome and appeal to a broad spectrum of family members.
B. Natural Hazards and Disasters
Natural hazards are part of the world around us, and their occurrence is inevitable.
Floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, noeeasters, earthquakes, wildfires, and other hazardous events are
natural phenomena which we cannot control. In addition to massive destruction of homes,
businesses, and infrastructure, these events can result in much damage to the ecological
environment surrounding the Town: fire can destroy forests, coastal storms can erode shorelines,
create and fill inlets, and move the barrier islands; high winds and wave surge can wreak havoc in
wetlands, tornadoes can uproot trees, earthquakes can alter the landscape. However, despite their
destructiveness, these occurrences are part of the natural system. The natural environment is
amazingly recuperative from the forces of wind, rain, fire, and earth, and can regenerate with
'Town of Nags Head 1990 Land Use Plan Update.

3
remarkable resiliency, even restoring habitat and ecosystems in time for the next generation of
plant and animal life to begin anew.
It is when the man-made environment intersects with these natural phenomena that
"disasters" result. Disasters occur when human activity, such as buildings and infrastructure, take
place in the path of the force of nature. The human environment, particularly the built
environment, is not nearly as indestructible nor as recuperative as the natural one, and the
occurrence of a natural hazard could result in the destruction of the entire community for many
years following the event. It is therefore critical that following a natural hazard that the
community be built back according to resilience and avoidance standards that help it grow in
harmony with the natural environment.
C. Vulnerability to Natural Hazards
Vulnerability to a natural hazard can be described as the extent to which people will
experience harm and property will be damaged from that hazard. A community's degree of
vulnerability depends upon the risk of a natural hazard occurring in that area (including such
factors as probability, frequency and severity), as well as the amount and type of development or
potential development that is or could be located there. Using the latest data available, Nags
Head has analyzed its degree of vulnerability in great detail, and continues to update this analysis
as needed.
Vulnerability to natural hazards exists both at the present time and in the future. The
present level of development and amount of infrastructure in place to support that development
generate a set of conditions which result in every area having some degree of vulnerability to
natural hazards. That degree of vulnerability will change in the future as an area experiences
greater development and/or implements greater hazard mitigation efforts.
Nags Head's location in proximity to the ocean makes certain natural hazards exceedingly
likely. In addition to this risk, the growth and development pressures that have been experienced
by the Town over the last several years mean more people and more property have been put in
harm's way. These are factors that point to increased vulnerability of the Town. However,
because they are based on a thoughtful analysis of vulnerability, the hazard policies that have been
in place for nearly a decade in Nags Head have significantly reduced this vulnerability, and with
careful updating and implementation these mitigation policies will continue to reduce the
vulnerability of Nags Head to the impacts of natural hazards.
D. Mitigation
While the Town of Nags Head cannot prevent natural hazards, we do have the means at
hand to reduce some of their adverse consequences. The Town has been a leader in formulating a
variety of tools and techniques which, when put into effect in a timely fashion, allow us to avoid
the worst -case scenario when a hazard does occur. By managing the characteristics of the
existing and future human environment in the community before a hazardous event occurs, we can

4
mitigate many of its negative impacts so that a disaster is less likely to result or will at least be of
diminished magnitude. This pre -event planning contributes to the fulfillment of the Town's
Mission Statement, which calls in part for the safety and welfare of the citizens, property owners
and visitors of the Town.'
The Town of Nags Head has adopted a unique and resourceful program to mitigate the
potential for the loss of life and property associated with hurricanes and natural disasters. The
Town is committed to actions that will not only reduce numbers of individuals at risk should a
disaster occur, but also will assure that when the Town is rebuilt that it will be rebuilt in a safe
manner. These actions are rather unique and innovative in that the Town of Nags Head is
ensuring public safety and protecting lives and property, and preserving the natural, cultural, and
economic resources through a program of land use controls and regulations. For this planning
effort the Town of Nags Head was the recipient of the 1989 North Carolina American Planning
Association Small Community Outstanding Planning Award and the 1990 Legislative Award from
the National Hurricane Conference.
The Nags Head mitigation program is a unique blend of planning management tools,
Town ordinances and policies, interagency cooperative agreements, as well as specific police
powers legislated to the mayor. The purpose of the program is three -fold: (1) the Town is
preparing now for a major natural disaster; (2) the Town has adopted laws which will provide for
an orderly response in the event of a disaster, and (3) the Town has approved planning
management tools which will reduce the numbers of people and value of property at risk after a
storm while protecting and enhancing the economic stability of the Town and protecting our most
valuable resource - the ocean beach.
A fundamental premise of Nags Head's mitigation strategy is that current time, energy and
resources invested in mitigation will significantly reduce the demand for future dollars by reducing
the amount needed for emergency recovery, repair and reconstruction following a disaster. Our
mitigation policies also call for conservation of natural and ecologically sensitive areas, which
enables the. environment to absorb some of the impact of hazard events. In this manner, the
Town's mitigation programs can help the community attain a level of sustainability, ensuring
long-term economic vitality and environmental health for the community as a whole.
In addition to reducing the Town's vulnerability to natural hazards, the Nags Head Hazard
Mitigation Plan will serve as a basis to fulfill many of the requirements of federal programs that
'The Town of Nags Head Mission Statement reads as follows:
The mission of the Town of Nags Head is to provide for the health, safety and welfare of
the citizens, property owners and visitors of the town, to fulfill the requirements placed on
it by the State of North Carolina and to facilitate the achievement of community goals by
providing municipal services in a flexible, cost effective, customer friendly manner and to
achieve this through an open, consensus driven process that treats all with respect.

A
distribute disaster relief. For instance, creation and approval of mitigation plans are prerequisites
for communities to participate in the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) and the Flood
Mitigation Assistance Program (FMAP). Plans also facilitate the application process of the
Community Rating System (CRS). Furthermore, this Hazard Mitigation Plan will aid in satisfying
the statutory provisions of the North Carolina Coastal Area Management Act (CAMA), which
dictate that all local governments in the North Carolina Coastal Zone prepare a local Land Use
Plan, one section of which must address storm hazard mitigation.
E. Windows of Opportunity for Mitigation
There are many different times at which the Town of Nags Head will be able to integrate
mitigation efforts with other community planning and development activities. Some of these
"windows of opportunity" occur in day-to-day activities. Other opportunities arise when the
Town considers projects, prepares for hazard events, responds to hazard events, and while the
Town is engaged in recovery and reconstruction efforts following a disaster.
The Town of Nags Head recognizes that when considering day-to-day activities, the
window of opportunity is always open, except during the hazard event itself. The Town has
successfully incorporated mitigation into many of its activities, especially with regards to land use
policies and construction and building regulations, and the Town is constantly on the lookout for
additional ways to integrate mitigation concepts into the normal function of government. By
incorporating mitigation concepts into government activities today at a relatively low cost the
Town has significantly reduced its vulnerability to natural hazards, thus allowing us to avoid much
more costly losses from future disasters.

h
II. GOALS
The Town of Nags Head has established the following goals as statements of desirable
future conditions which are to be achieved. Many of these goals have been previously adopted by
the Town; what follows is a codification of previously adopted mitigation policy as well as new
policy. Some factors and decisions may be, at least in the short run, beyond the control of Nags
Head. Yet while certain goals may not be achievable by Nags Head unilaterally, they may be
achievable through collaboration and coordinated action with other actors and levels of
government. These are goals for the Town of Nags Head to accomplish through its programs,
policies and actions, and by working with and through others.
1. It is the goal of the Town of Nags Head to allow the natural processes of barrier island
migration to occur.'
Problems with shoreline management and protection, and therefore increased vulnerability
to natural hazards, arise when the public fails to understand or acknowledge that barrier islands
are dynamic and ever -changing environments. Barrier islands have been shown to migrate
(Kaufinan and Pilkey, 1977), and are subject to a complex and numerous set of natural forces,
e.g., washover processes, littoral drift, inlet formation, dune and beach dynamics, and are further
modified by storms and hurricanes. Coastal erosion, both as a result of normal offshore littoral
patterns, the occurrence of hurricanes and storms, and the general sea level rise which has been
occurring (Titus, 1985), make development along the shores of barrier islands particularly
tenuous.
2. It is the goal of Nags Head to reduce, to the extent possible, future damage from
hurricanes and severe coastal storms It is the Town's intent to reduce these hazards both
in advance of such events and to require mitigation measures during reconstruction
Which reduce damages from future storms 2
The wind, wave and surge effects of a hurricane or noeeaster create serious threats to the
personal safety of individuals remaining in coastal areas. Residents and visitors of the Town of
Nags Head are highly vulnerable to these personal risks, and it is a primary goal of the Town to
reduce, to the extent feasible, their magnitude and severity.
The general public shall have sufficient opportunities to vacate the storm area since Dare
County has no emergency shelters in which to weather hurricanes and other hazard events.
3. It is the goal of Nags Head to seek the provision for a street and bridge system which
provides for the easy and safe movement of residents, and which permits quick
'Goal adopted 1990: Town ofNags Head Land Use Plan Update.
2Goal adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

8
evacuation of all residents and visitors of Nags Head in the event of a hurricane or
severe coastal storm.'
While real property can be fortified or boarded -up, and personal property can be made
more secure against an impending hazard, hurricanes and other severe coastal storms pose a
threat to human lives that often can only be eliminated by removal from the scene of danger.
Transportation routes that are well planned and sufficiently sized to evacuate the entire population
of Nags Head within the short time allowed by storm warnings are essential. However, increased
road and bridge capacity will also lead to an increase in traffic, bringing more and more people
into danger should a natural hazard strike. This easier access to the Town could potentially
undermine the character of Nags Head, as well as endanger its inhabitants, highlighting the need
for regulated development densities and other land use controls.
4. It is the goal of Nags Head to seek ways in which to increase the number of credit points
the Town receives from the Community Rating System (CRS) by implementing effective
flood mitigation measures
By regulating new development in its floodplains, the Town of Nags Head is a participant
in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), which provides federally backed flood insurance
for existing and new properties. Because Nags Head undertakes floodplain mitigation activities
above the minimum NFIP standards, residents of the Town are eligible for flood insurance
premium discounts under the Community Rating System (CRS), administered by FEMA. Nags
Head is one of only a few North Carolina communities that has received a class 7 rating, based on
its comprehensive floodplain management activities. As a result, local residents receive annually a
15% reduction in their flood insurance premiums.
S. The Town of Nags Head will continue to support, review and comment upon the system of
post -hazard mutual aid that is being done by the North Carolina League of
Municipalities The Town supports the concept of mutual aid agreements that allow
communities to share building inspectors and other municipal personnel in the wake of a
natural hazard and has been a leader in the effect to operationalize the system.
6. The policies and regulations for hurricane and storm mitigation that are adopted by the
Town of Nags Head should be coordinated and integrated with other community goals
By promoting multi -objectives, the Town will be able to expend resources more
efficiently. For instance, when deciding which of several competing parcels of hurricane -prone
land to purchase, the deciding factor may be which parcel will be most responsive to the Town's
future recreational needs. There are myriad instances in which hazard mitigation and non -hazards
mitigation objectives can be advanced through the same or similar policies and programs. The
3Goal adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

0
Town of Nags Head will constantly be aware of these interconnections and package its programs
accordingly.
7. The building inspectors of Nags Head are an integral component of the Town's hazard
mitigation program, and the Town will continue to maintain the high standards by which
the local building inspectors enforce the North Carolina State Building Code. The Town
also supports the FEMA sponsored periodic review of local building inspection
practices
Many structural mitigation measures involve new construction and retrofitting of existing
homes, businesses and other structures according to standards designed to make the buildings
more resilient to the impacts of natural hazards. Many of these standards are imposed through the
building code. North Carolina has a state compulsory building code which applies throughout the
state, as well as regulations which apply in coastal, flood plain and high wind zones. These
regulations are enforced by local inspectors.

11
III. NATURAL HAZARD MITIGATION POLICIES
A. Introduction
The Town of Nags Head has developed the following policies, which will serve as the
Town's principles of hazard mitigation and guide for decision -making. Some of these policies can
be characterized as "avoidance policies," designed to remove at -risk structures from the line of
danger, so that the impact of a natural hazard is avoided. Other policies are "resilience policies,"
intended to make buildings better able to withstand the impact of natural hazards.
These policy statements establish the direction the Town wishes to pursue in achieving its
hazard mitigation goals. Many of these policies have previously been adopted in Nags Head's
1988 Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan and/or in the Town of Nags Head
1990 Land Use Plan Update. These policies have served Nags Head well, and continue to reduce
the community's vulnerability to the impact of natural hazards.
Many of the following policies are the equivalent of regulations promulgated by the North
Carolina General Assembly for all coastal communities through the North Carolina Coastal Area
Management Act (CAMA). It is not the intent of the Town to impose an additional layer of
regulation on local property owners and builders; rather, the policies contained in this mitigation
plan underscore our local -based support for CAMA and its regulations.
B. Policy Statements
1. Consistent with CAMA policy, it is the policy of the Town that no person or legal entity
shall be permitted to build a seawall, jetty, groin or other artificial device designed to
stabilize the ocean shoreline. The Town supports the current CAMA provisions which
prohibit the use of shore -hardening devices'
Groins and jetties are structures built perpendicular to the shoreline. Jetties are often very
long and intended to keep sand from filling in inlets and shipping channels. Groins are smaller and
attempt to trap sand flowing in the littoral current. Such structures are expensive, unsightly and
cause extensive erosion problems down -current, as they rob these beach areas of the natural sand
replenishment they would normally receive.
Shoreline protection works, such as seawalls and revetments, are built parallel to the
coastline and are designed to shield directly shoreline property from the ocean forces. Such
structures, however, reflect wave action, and intensify currents which steepen the profile of the
beach and damage the property beyond the ends of the structure. In the long run these structures
serve to destroy or seriously undermine the beach, require continual maintenance and investment,
and are largely ineffective in protecting property from shoreline processes without perpetual
'Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

12
nourishment of the beach seaward of the hardened shoreline, and. the portion of the beach
available to the public would soon erode away. Moreover, these structures are extremely costly
to build. The Coastal Resources Commission, recognizing the inappropriateness of shore -
hardening devices such as wooden bulkheads, seawalls, rock or rubble revetments, jetties, groins
and breakwaters, has prohibited their use on North Carolina ocean beaches.
A more responsible approach is to acknowledge the natural processes and dynamics of the
shoreline and to manage growth accordingly. The location, density, and configuration of
development can be modified to take into consideration these valuable and important resources
and to respect natural processes. Results from the 1990 Land Use Survey supported the position
of retreat, but when asked about other approaches such as beach nourishment and artificial reefs,
a number of respondents expressed interest in exploring these and other similar measures.
2. The Town's current land use regulations, when combined with CAMA and other state
regulations, adequately protect the Town's ocean and sound shorelines as well as the
islands in Roanoke Sound 2
The North Carolina Coastal Area Management Act (CAMA) requires all local
governments in the North Carolina coastal zone to prepare a land use plan, one section of which
must address hazard mitigation. The Land Use Plan Guidelines state that the purpose of the
Storm Hazard Mitigation section of a CAMA land use plan is to develop policies that will guide
the development of the community so that the risk of damage to property and the threat of harm
to human life from coastal storms is kept to a minimum level. Once approved by the North
Carolina Coastal Resources Commission, the local land use plan becomes part of the North
Carolina Coastal Management Plan. The plans are then used as a framework that guides local
leaders as they make decisions affecting development. Businesses, investors, new residents, and
other private individuals, as well as other levels of government also use the plan to guide their
land use decisions.
3. It is the policy of Nags Head to disallow any shoreline management strategy that
damages abutting property or endangers the public beach.'
4. Consistent with CAAIA, the Town believes that a stabilized frontal dune system is
important and shall take all actions to preserve and enhance this system. This will
include regulating development to minimize its impacts on the frontal dune system.4
PPolicy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
'Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
Volicy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

13
Dunes, both natural and man-made, are important features with respect to property
damage mitigation. Frontal dunes are the last line of defense against storm wave attack
and flooding from overwash. Prior to strict coastal zone management regulations, frontal
dunes were often excavated for ocean views and building sites or notched at road
terminals for beach access. These artificially created dune gaps are exploited by waves
and storm surge and by storm -surge ebb flows. Wherever dune removal for development
has occurred, the probability is increased for complete overwash to occur, and raises the
possibility of inlet formation. In addition to the damage that may occur to property
located in areas of dune removal, the combined threats of storm flooding, inlet formation,
and the burial of roads by overwash sand make these areas prime danger zones for
evacuation in case of a hurricane warning.
S. It is the policy of Nags Head to protect its ocean shoreline resources, and to interfere as
little as possible with the natural processes and dynamics at work in these areas.'
Preservation and enhancement of the natural features of the coastal ecosystem will entail
protection of the dunes and beaches which serve to buffer wave and surge effects; wetlands;
natural drainage features; and other attributes of the natural environment which reduce or lessen
the impacts of hurricane forces, including flooding.
6 It is the policy of the Town that movement of beach sand out of the ocean hazard AEC
shall be prohibited"
7. As prescribed by CAMA, sand pushing, the movement of sand on a particular site as a
means of beach nourishment, and the use of sand bags as a temporary measure to protect
a threatened structure shall be permitted until the structure can be removed from the site.
These activities shall not interfere with access to and use of the beach by the public.'
8. The Town will only support those uses on 404 wetlands which are either water -dependent
or those uses which enhance the estuarine shoreline experiences, such as restaurants and
wildlife observation areas!
Development along the estuarine shoreline and in other wetland areas is regulated under
Section 404 of the Federal Clean Water Act by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Although permits are issued by the Federal government, all
Volicy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
Volicy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
'Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
'Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

14
development in 404 wetlands must meet the local zoning ordinance, which may limit the intensity
and types of uses allowed over 404 wetlands. The Zoning Ordinance of Nags Head applies to all
territory within its jurisdiction, including wetlands. As the availability of land for development in
the Town decreases, there will be more pressure to build in and over wetlands. All such
development must be on pilings, and while costly now, this situation may become more cost
effective as land becomes more limited.
9. It is the policy of the Town to remain open to exploration of all issues involved in a town -
wide or regional beach nourishment project.9
Beach nourishment programs involve efforts to push or place sand onto the beach in an.
attempt to build back former dunes and upper beach. Beach nourishment projects are typically
very expensive and the results temporary and require continual renourishment. A single noeeaster
may eliminate much of the sand deposited under a nourishment program. Beach nourishment
programs, however, represent efforts to preserve oceanfront property without damaging
neighboring property or destroying the public's use of the beach, as do shore -hardening methods
of stabilization. [Note: Although beach nourishment projects may involve the placement of a
groin, it is intended that this policy be consistent with policy number 1. of the plan which prohibits
the building of shore -hardening devices along the ocean shoreline.
10. It is the policy of the Town that the relocation of threatened structures off the oceanfront
is the preferred response to buildings threatened by erosion.10
Moving a building to safer ground is the surest way to protect it from the most direct
impacts of coastal storms and daily erosion processes. Relocation as a form of mitigation is
clearly the most effective manner of removing people and property from the most hazardous area
of Nags Head --the ocean front. The Town recognizes "retreat" as its number one mitigative
option for its most vulnerable structures.
11. The Town of Nags Head has adopted a capital improvements program which addresses
steering growth away from the highest storm hazard areas, thereby minimizing the extent
of public investment at -risk This includes the siting, where feasible, of public facilities
such as water distribution lines, in less hazardous locations in the community.11
"Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
10Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
11Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

15
12. The Town recognizes that natural features of the barrier island such as dunes and
wetlands, act to mitigate the damaging effects of hurricanes It is the Town's policy to
protect and enhance these natural mitigation features 12
13. The aftermath of a storm can present an opportunity to achieve substantial progress in
hazard mitigation by the rapid acquisition of land The Town will take advantage of
opportunities which may arise to acquire or purchase land following a storm event. To
this extent the Town will establish, prepare and identify in advance where priority areas
are located and will develop in advance decision making and funding mechanisms to
ensure rapid acquisition. The Town shall identify acquisition areas which would satisfy
multiple community objectives including, but not limited to, open space, parks and
recreation sites, historic or scenic areas, or areas for location of Town facilities and any
other use allowed by law.13
14. The Town of Nags Head will identify and track all non -local (federal, state, regional)
policies, programs, and decisions which will influence the local mitigation of hurricane
hazards, and attempt to affect these in ways which reduce the hazard locally.1'
15. It is the policy of the Town to support the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP),
and the construction and mitigation measures required under it. The Town actively
supports and is working with FEVA's Community Rating System (CRS) Program to
prevent storm and f looding damages from occurring in the first place, rather than simply
reacting after the damages have occurred 15
16. The Town opposes the construction of finger canals and will take all necessary actions to
prohibit them.16
Finger canals are a man-made alteration of the barrier island morphology that cause a
variety of problems. Finger canal is the term applied to the ditches or channels dug from the
sound side of an island into the island proper for the purpose of maximizing the number of
waterfront lots. Canals can be made by excavation alone or by a combination of excavations and
12Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
13Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan; 1990:
Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
"Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
1Volicy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
16Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

16
infill of adjacent low-lying areas (usually marshes). The resulting substrate is often insufficient for
anchoring building supports.
Finger canals have a destabilizing effect. Where canals cut deep into the island's interior,
almost to the ocean side, storm -surge ebb flow may be funneled through the canal and cut an
inlet, or adjacent finger canals may lead to lateral breaching, creating small back -side islands.
These finger-canaled zones of weakness in the barrier island may be breached in future storms,
creating greater risk during the storms and expensive post -storm island restoration.
17. All post -storm reconstruction will be required to conform to the provisions of the North
Carolina State Building Code. The Town of Nags Head will strictly enforce the code as
well as continue to lobby the State for an amendment to the Building Code that will better
address coastal concerns of wince, flood, and fire."
Structural mitigation measures involve both new construction and retrofitting existing
homes, businesses and other structures according to standards designed to make the buildings
more resilient to the impacts of natural hazards. Many of these standards are imposed through the
building code, and are enforced locally.
18. Damaged public facilities, including water lines, will be rebuilt consistent with the
practices, adopted policies, regulations, and objectives of the Town.18
19. The Town, when considering reconstruction, will encourage redevelopment patterns
which recognize and utilize the natural mitigative features of the coastal environment.
Redevelopment should take into consideration arty changes in natural conditions brought
about by the storm, e.g., new inlets, changes in drainage patterns.19
20. The Town of Nags Head will integrate recovery and reconstruction planning with the
broader set of planning goals and objectives for the community. The Town recognizes
that the aftermath of a hurricane may provide a unique opportunity to modify existing
development patterns and to accomplish Town objectives that would otherwise not be
possible.20
17Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
1!Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
19Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
2QPolicy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

FVl
21. It is the policy of the Town that redevelopment following a natural hazard will occur at
the intensitypermitted in. that Zoning District at the time of redevelopment and the Town
Will oppose any attempts to increase intensities 21
22. The Town will continue to review and update its street and drainage improvement plan.
The plan identifies and prioritizes road drainage improvements designed to alleviate
congestion and potential, f looding caused by increasing development and growth in the
Town.22
As the permanent and seasonal populations of Nags Head expand, and the commercial
areas which serve them increase in size,. traffic on Nags Head streets will become an increasingly
important concern. Nags Head will encourage NC DOT to address the issue of how it will
respond to the loss of one or more sections of NC 12 in the event of a coastal storm. In addition
to local traffic, as the Dare beach communities grow, Nags Head will receive substantial amounts
of through -traffic. Two specific traffic problems can be identified: (1) the capacity of the Town's
road and bridge system to accommodate evacuation in the event of a hurricane or a severe coastal
storm, and (2) the ability of South Croatan Highway (US 158) and US 64/264, and to a lesser
extent South Virginia Dare Trail (NC 12), to move traffic efficiently and safely from the
Whalebone Junction area to either the Kitty Hawk area or to Roanoke Island.
23. It is the Town's policy to continue to participate with Emergency Management personnel
and the Dare County Control Group to evacuate the area and to discourage residents or
visitors from remaining on the Outer Banks in the event of a hurricane.23
Coordinated evacuation planning efforts between municipalities, counties, and state and
federal officials facilitates the evacuation process; to this end, the Town is a participant in the
Dare County Hurricane Evacuation Plan. The decision to evacuate is made by a control group
comprised of members of each municipality and the county. Along with other tools, the control
group utilizes a "decision arc" method to determine when an evacuation is needed. The decision
arc method is a hurricane planning tool which determines the evacuation "clearance time'.
Evacuation clearance time is the time required to clear the roadways of all evacuating vehicles
prior to the arrival of sustained 34-knot winds. Clearance time needed for evacuation is based on:
(1) the hurricane category; (2) the expected evacuee response rate; (3) the tourist occupancy rate;
(4) the evacuation routes available; and (5) the estimated time required along the routes.
24. The Town recognizes that evacuation planning is a regional problem and it will work
with other affected jurisdictions and to lobby the North Carolina Department of
21Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
22Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
23Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

18
Transportation for improvements, not only along South Croatan Highway (US 158),
South Virginia Dare Trail (NC 12), and US 641264, but also improvement to and from
the mainland to provide for maximum efficiency in hurricane evacuation of the Outer
Banks'4
25. The Town believes that a municipal sewer system is not affordable in Nags Head
Further, the Town opposes a public sewer system in order to avoid the pressure for high
density development that inevitably follows the installation. It is believed that the high
density made possible by public sewer systems would only exacerbate the problems of
limited capacity in other areas, i.e., hurricane evacuation, water supply.I
As population and development continue to grow in Nags Head, the need for increased
sewage disposal capacity will increase as well. Currently, the predominant method of sewage
treatment in Nags Head is the use of septic tanks. Several package treatment plants have been
built to accommodate the needs of high density development in the Town. Despite the
environmental implications for water quality of heavy reliance on septic tanks, it is likely that the
Town will continue to rely on this means of treatment, along with package plants for higher
density uses. Based on several EPA studies26 2', the Town presently does not view the installation
of a public sewage system as either economically sound or consistent with desired levels of
density.
26. At this time the Town is also opposed to the concept of a regional sewer system, and
believes that such a system would be too costly, and would generate more negative
consequences than it would mingate.28
A regional sewer system would provide sewage capacity for increased development in the
area in and around Nags Head. Since providing sewage treatment and water are perhaps the two
greatest expenses for new development, the availability of these services may encourage
developers who otherwise would not be able to afford to build in the area. This would increase
the level of development in the region, thereby directly increasing its vulnerability to the impact of
natural hazards. By placing more structures, and correspondingly, more people, in the location of
'Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
uPolicy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.
'U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, North Carolina Barrier Islands Generic
Environmental Impact Statement Environmental Inventory (1981).
"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, North Carolina Barrier Islands Environmental
Impact Statement, Wastewater Management (EPA 904/9-84-117;1984).
'Policy adopted 1990: Town of Nags Head Land Use Plan Update.

19
potential hurricanes and other coastal storms, the region would face greater property losses, and
endanger more lives in the event of a hazard.
2 Z The Town has declared that the existence of certain conditions associated with storm- or
erosion -damaged structures or their resultant debris shall constitute a public nuisance.--'
28. The Town has established several types of building moratoria which address different
situations which may result from a storm event.30
29. The Town has called for the creation of a reconstruction task force to be activated and
mobilized upon the declaration of the initial building moratorium. The reconstruction
task force will oversee the recovery and reconstruction process and serve as an advisory
body to the Town Board of Commissioners on recovery/reconstruction issues A primary
function of the task force is to receive and review damage reports and other analyses of
post -storm circumstances and to compare these circumstances with mitigation
opportunities identified prior to the storm to discern appropriate areas for post -storm
change and innovation. Where needed, the reconstruction task force can review in a
more speck fashion alternative mechanisms for bringing these changes about and
recommend the coordination of internal and external resources for achieving these
ends 31
30. Following a damaging storm and enactment of a building moratorium, it is the policy of
the Town to allow rebuilding and reconstruction in an orderly manner, through the
control of the building permit issuance process and upon the advice of the reconstruction
task force.32
31. The Town of Nags Head will make every effort to develop its capacity to identify and
orchestrate vm ious post -storm reconstruction resources, while at the same time ensuring
maximum local control over the reconstruction process 33
32. Consistent with CAMA provisions, the Town of Nags Head has adopted general use
34
standards for ocean hazard areas
Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
30Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Nfitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
31Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Nfitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
32Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
33Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
'Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.

20
The general use standards for ocean hazard areas enumerated in the 1988 Hurricane and
Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan establish strict conditions whereupon single family
residential structures may not be permitted seaward of the applicable setback line in ocean
erodible areas. Because large structures located immediately along the Atlantic Ocean present
increased risk of loss of life and property, increased potential for eventual loss or damage to the
public beach area and other important natural features along the oceanfront, increased potential
for higher public costs for federal flood insurance, erosion control, storm protection, disaster
relief and provision of public services such as water and sewer, and increased difficulty and
expense of relocation in the event of future shoreline loss, a greater oceanfront setback is required
and has been established for these structures than is the case with smaller structures.
33. Consistent with the provisions of CAMA and the NFIP development standards for VE
zones, in order to avoid weakening the protective nature of ocean beaches and primary
and frontal dunes, it is the policy of the Town that no development will be permitted that
involves the removal or relocation of primary or frontal dune sand or vegetation
thereon.35
34. The Town has established geographical restrictions on ocean frontage lots, requiring
that in the future when land is subdivided between the Atlantic Ocean and the road which
parallels the ocean, the lots shall be of uniform width and shall extend from the ocean to
the road
The Town of Nags Head has experienced extensive ocean beach erosion and subsequent
loss of property in some areas. A majority of the loss of property has occurred on lots which do
not abut both the Atlantic Ocean and the road which parallels the ocean. Many of these lots do
not offer the opportunity to move the structure away from the ocean or to move the structure off
the lot, the preferred method of hazard mitigation for the Town.
35. It is the policy of the Town that when a nonconforming lot is adjacent to one or more
conforming or nonconforming lots under the same ownership, and when arty portion of a
proposed structure or required use is located on two or more lots, the lots shall be
combined into one single lot of record and a plat combining said lots shall be recorded
in the Dare County Registryprior to the issuance of a building permit.37
Many of the Town's existing oceanfront lots are nonconforming, that is, they fail to meet
the current requirement for lot width or area as required by the Nags Head Zoning Ordinance.
Often when development occurs several of these nonconforming lots may be used for the same
"Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
37Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.

21
development project. The ordinance requires those nonconforming lots to be combined into one
lot. The long-term outcome of this regulation will be to eventually reduce the number of
nonconforming lots on the oceanfront and indirectly reduce the density of structures subjected to
risk from hurricanes and storms.
36. It is the policy of the Town that prior to the consideration of an expenditure of public
funds for the repair or construction of Town streets which are destroyed or damaged as a
result of a severe storm event, the Town shall conduct adequate studies and explore
alternative solutions, including but not limited to, abandonment procedures, special
assessments, and condemnations 38
37. It shalt be a policy of the Town to retain on a yearly basis an Assistance Facilitator -
Consultant who, as directed by the Town Manager, will be responsible for:
1. Determining the types of assistance available to the Town and the type of assistance
most needed
2. Assisting in the coordination of federal recovery effort.
3. Coordinating federal and state programs of assistance.
4. Informing the community of types of assistance programs available.
S. Recommending to the Recovery Task Force and Board of Commissioners programs
which are available to the Town and then to act as facilitator in securing those
programs.39
Following a major disaster there are a large number of federal and state programs available
to the Town to aid in disaster relief and reconstruction. These programs can provide assistance or
funds to local government units as well as provide information about assistance that is available to
individuals, businesses, families, and non-profit associations. Some programs can only be
implemented upon declaration of a major disaster by the President of the United States. Other
programs can be made available independently of a Presidential Declaration of a major disaster or
an emergency.
38. It shall be the policy of the Town not to expend public funds for the repair or
reconstruction of any private road or vehicular easement which is damaged or destroyed
38Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
39Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.

22
as a result of a severe storm event, except in conjunction with the repair and maintenance
of the Town IS water System.40
39. The Town of Nags Head recognizes that accurate and current geographic data,
especially data that is presented in the form of maps, are essential to effectively plan for
natural hazards The Town will consider a policy to develop and maintain the
geographic information appropriate to hazard mitigation planning in Nags Head It is
also the policy of the Town to maintain an open dialogue with the Center for Geographic
Information and Analysis, the North Carolina Division of Emergency Management, and
the North Carolina Division of Coastal Management in the pursuit of reliable
geographic information.
40. The Town of Nags Head recognizes that at the present time some structures in the Town
are not built to current code standards, especially with regards to the recent amendments
to the North Carolina State Building Code concerning high wind zones Because of the
Tawn's firm commitment to construction standards that are designed to make buildings
as least vulnerable to the impacts of natural hazards as is practicable, it is the policy of
the Town to encourage all owners of structures in Nags Head to consider retrofitting
their property so that it meets or exceeds the most recent building code standards
Owners of current structures are further encouraged to conduct periodic inspections of
their structures to assess whether their condition is adequate to withstand the impact of
future storms The Town recognizes that well-informed property owners can most
effectively participate in the community's mitigation efforts, and the Town will consider
methods of facilitating the education of citizens regarding retrofitting their property.
41. It is the policy of the Town to encourage the development industry, as well as individuals
involved in new construction within Nags Ream to build all structures so that they exceed
code standards for safety and resiliency. To further this policy, the Town will facilitate
education regarding best management practices for construction in the coastal region.
42. The Town of Nags Head has instituted a program for the management of storm water,
and has prepared a Stormwater Management Plan Update and Stormwater Ordinance. °!
The purpose of the Stormwater Management Plan is to provide the Town an analysis of
stormwater management processes, status and options to aid the Town in developing appropriate
policies and regulations to manage stormwater runoff through buildout of the Town.
40Policy adopted 1988: Hurricane and Storm Mitigation and Reconstruction Plan.
41Stormwater Management Plan Update; Stormwater Ordinance Update, prepared for the:
Town of Nags Head and North Carolina Division of Coastal Management, 1995.

23
Throughout the analysis, attention is given to unique circumstances of the Town, including
geographic location, topography, development patterns, sewage disposal methods, and the
sometimes conflicting goals to (not listed in order of priority):
Minimize the detrimental effects of standing stormwater on public health and safety,
including street and parking lot flooding;
Minimize the rate and volume of stormwater runoff into the adjacent waters (ditches,
sound and ocean) and the impact,that stormwater runoff has on the waters;
Minimize the incompatibility of disposing of both stormwater and sewage effluent on -site;
Minimize the groundwater lowering effects of deep drainage ditches while recognizing the
need to maintain existing drainage.
Because of the relatively good condition of existing systems in the Town to minimize the
detrimental effects of standing water on public health and safety, the last three goals are attempted
to be satisfied to the extent possible without unreasonably compromising the first goal.
In the fall of 1995, the Town adopted a Stormwater Management Plan and Stormwater
Management Ordinance. The stormwater policies in the 1990 Land Use Plan have been
incorporated into the ordinance in an attempt to minimize the rate and volume of stormwater
runoff that enters into these systems thereby diminishing, to a large extent, the environmental
degradation associated with it. In a broader sense, both the Plan and Ordinance support
traditional development patterns, i.e., single family and duplex construction, which the Town, as a
primary goal, has been encouraging through the land use planning process. These built-in
incentives, for example, recognize the contribution that stormwater generates from single family
development sites but regulates the subdivider, at the time of plat submission, and not the
homeowner/contractor at the time of building permit issuance. A concerted effort has been made
to ensure consistency between the Stormwater Management policies/ordinance and the 1990
CAMA Land Use Plan.
This Stormwater Plan and Ordinance will ensure that the Town's drainage and stormwater issues
are dealt with and resolved in an orderly, coordinated, and fair fashion.

Fk1
IV. EVALUATION, REVISIONS, UPDATES
Nag Head's existing hazard mitigation policies have kept the vulnerability of the Town at
an acceptable level, especially considering the tremendous growth pressures that have been
exerted in the area over the past two decades. With periodic evaluation of our policies and the
data upon which they are based, the Town continues to be on the cutting edge of mitigation
practice at the local level. The Town is committed to continuing this vigilant evaluation, and to
undertaking regular revisions and updates to our hazard mitigation plan.

27
APPENDIX L HAZARD IDENTIFICATION, DEFINITION, AND PROBABILITY
A. Hurricanes
a. Description
A hurricane is a cyclonic storm formed and fueled through the release of latent
ocean
heat from n water condensation (Simpson). These storms form in low latitudes over warm
tropical ocean waters and in areas of low atmospheric pressure. Hurricanes which affect North
Carolina form in the Atlantic Basin, and are characterized by a vortex of wind which rotates
counter -clockwise. Wind speeds in the vortex range from 75 to 200 miles per hour, and the cloud
mass of the vortex produces heavy rainfall.
The center of the vortex, or the eye of the hurricane, averages 10 to 30 miles in diameter.
This central region of the storm is typically associated with light winds, minimum cloud cover and
minimum sea -level pressure; the latter, in more intense hurricanes, is much less than the peripheral
surface pressure (Neumann). The low pressure in the eye causes a local rise of the ocean surface
called storm surge. Combined with high winds, this phenomenon results in increased tide levels
and waves impinging on coastal lands. The eyewall contains the most intense winds, and can
extend 10 to 25 miles outward from the edge of the eye. Spiral bands of severe thunderstorms
called rain bands surround the eye of the hurricane.
The rotational speed of the hurricane is called the hurricane wind velocity. This is the
speed of the counter -clockwise winds of the hurricane itself. While the hurricane rotates around
its eye, it also moves forward from the force of regional winds at a speed called the storm -center
velocity, which can range from 5 to 15 miles per hour in tropical areas, and up to speeds of 60
miles an hour in temperate zones.
The heat energy that drives the wind system of a hurricane is derived from warm ocean
water, and the storm loses power as it crosses land. However, the storm may regain its force if it
heads back to sea. Hurricanes follow no set pattern of movement; some travel in straight lines,
others loop or curve, still others move in a combination of ways. The course of a hurricane is
extremely changeable, as its movements are susceptible to the air masses along its route. These
air masses may cause the hurricane to change direction or to hover in one area for a time (Coch).
The tracks of hurricanes are, therefore, very difficult to predict with any accuracy, and each storm
track is unique.
Because of the hurricane's two velocities, the hurricane -wind velocity and the storm -center
velocity, wind speed on opposite sides of the storm will differ quite significantly. On the right
side of a northward moving storm, the velocities add approximately to the sum of the hurricane -
wind velocity plus the storm -center velocity. However, on the left side of the storm, the rotary
winds are moving counter to the direction of the storm center. Thus, the net velocity on this side

28
is the hurricane -wind velocity minus the storm -center velocity. In other words, the winds are
always stronger, and the destruction greater, on the right side of a moving hurricane. If a
hurricane stalls, this is not true, because the net wind velocity is the same on all sides of the storm
(Coch).
The angle at which a hurricane approaches the coastline largely determines the level of
damage that will occur. A coast parallel hurricane track is offshore and parallel to the land. In a
northward moving hurricane, the weaker left side of the storm is located over the land, somewhat
minimizing the damage. The more volatile right side remains over the ocean and endangers only
ships at sea (Coch). As the storm approaches a given area, strong onshore winds drive water
onto the land (the flood surge), causing coastal flooding from the ocean. As the hurricane leaves
the area, the offshore winds drive impounded water from estuaries and bays over the coast from
the land side, a phenomenon known as ebb surge (Coch).
A coast -normal hurricane track is perpendicular to the coast. This angle of arrival on
shore can cause heavy damage, particularly where the stronger right side of the hurricane passes
(Coch). Some hurricanes can change their approach from coast -parallel to coast -normal, or vice
versa, as they pass over various landfall sites.
Hurricane intensity is rated by the Saffir/Simpson Scale from least intensity as category 1
to greatest intensity as category 5. Hurricanes are rated according to wind velocity, height to
which the sea rises, and the type of destruction expected (Coch). (See Table)

Kt
TABLE
The Saffir-Simpson Scale of Hurricane Intensity
(from Coch; Neumann)
1 Winds 119-153 km per hour (74-95 miles/hr), or storm surge 1.2-1.5 meters (4-5 feet) above
normal
No real damage to building structures. Damage primarily to unanchored mobile homes, shrubbery,
foliage, and trees. Some damage to poorly constructed signs. Low-lying coastal roads inundated,
minor pier damage, some small craft in exposed anchorage torn fi om moorings.
Winds 154-1771an per hour (96-110 miles/hr), or storm surge 1.8-2.4 meters (6-8 feet) above
normal
Some damage to roofing material, and door and window damage to buildings. Considerable damage
to vegetation, exposed mobile homes, and piers. Some trees blown down. Marinas flooded Coastal
and low-lying escape routes flood 2 to 4 hours before arrival of hurricane eye. Small craft in
unprotected anchorages break moorings. Evacuation of some shoreline residences and low-lying
island areas required.
Winds 178-2091an per hour (111-130 miles/hr), or storm surge 2.7-3.6 meters (9-12 feet)
above normal
Some structural damage to small residences and utility buildings with a minor amount of curtainwall
failures. Mobile homes are destroyed Foliage torn from trees, large trees blown down. Practically al
poorly constructed signs blown down. Flooding near the coast destroys smaller structures, with larger
structures damaged by floating debris and battering waves. Terrain continuously lower than 1.5
meters (5 feet) above sea level may be flooded inland as far as 9.6 km (6 miles). Evacuation of low-
lying residences within several blocks of shoreline possibly required.
Winds 210-249 km per hour (131-155 miles/hr), or storm surge 3.9-55 meters (13-18 feet)
above normaL .
More extensive curtainwall failures with erosion of beach areas. Major damage to lower floors of
structures near the shore due to flooding, floating debris and wave action. Shrubs and trees blown
down; all signs down. Complete destruction of mobile homes. Terrain continuously below 3 meters
(10 feet) above sea level may be flooded, requiring massive evacuation of residential areas inland as
far as 9.6 km (6 miles).
Winds greater than 249 km per hour (155 miles/hr), or storm surge greater than 5.5 meters
(18 feet) above normaL
Complete roof failure on many residences and industrial buildings. Some complete building failures,
with small utility buildings blown over or away. Very extensive damage to windows and doors;
extensive shattering of glass. Shrubs and trees blown down; all signs down. Major damage to lower
floors of all structures located less than 4.5 meters (15 feet) above sea level and within 457 meters
(500 yards) of the shoreline. Massive evacuation of areas on low ground within 8-16 km (5-10 miles)
of the shoreline may be required

30
b. Effects
The primary effects of coastal storms are a result of storm surge, wave action, winds,
rainfall, inland flooding, and tornadoes. The attributes which influence the effects of cyclonic
storms include storm intensity, storm speed, storm size, and the path or track of the storm
(Friedman). IEgh wind speeds and lower barometric pressures are associated with more intense
storms. Elements of storm intensity include wind and wave impacts, and storm surge flooding.
Each of these is discussed in detail below. Storm speed is one characteristic which determines the
amount of time a storm will create hazard conditions in any given location. Speed also affects the
time available to warn of an impending threat, and to evacuate an area. Storm size determines the
breadth of affected area, and the orientation of the storm path to the coastline influences storm
impacts and their duration.
Storm Surge
The elevated ocean surface accompanying the passage or landfall of a hurricane is called
the storm surge. Storm surge causes most of the structural damage at the shoreline (Coch). The
National Weather Service estimates that storm surge has been responsible for nine of every ten
hurricane fatalities (Frazier). As a hurricane moves over the continental shelf, it produces a
buildup of water at the coastline. How high the water surface becomes elevated in a hurricane
storm surge is controlled by forces of the approaching hurricane as well as the characteristics of
the area. These factors include: the category of storm (higher -intensity hurricanes have greater
winds to drive more water across shallow depths; higher -intensity storms also have lower central
pressure, allowing the ocean surface to rise to greater levels); tidal stage (surge is superimposed
on normal tides - high tide raises the ocean surface so the storm surge can penetrate farther
inland); shoreline configuration (surge levels increase along concave coasts and in narrowing bays
as hurricane winds force water into them).
The flood surge occurs as the eye of the hurricane travels over the shore. This mass of
water pushes against beaches, buildings, dunes and other impediments to its progress, and carries
sediment and debris inland. Once the hurricane has passed over the area, the flood surge waters,
along with the impounded water of earlier rainfall (which has often fallen for days before the
approach of the hurricane eye), flow back to the ocean as an ebb surge, causing a second wave of
debris and fast-moving water to assault the structures left standing on the shoreline. Ebb surge
channels may be eroded through barrier islands from the sound side oceanward, fostered in part
by roads and driveways built at right angles to the beach which act as channels for the receding
waters. These ebb surge channels make the island susceptible to finther erosion from future
storms (Coch).
Three elements contribute to the damage resulting from the flood surge: 1) the
battering force of wave action; 2) the upward pressure (hydraulic lift) exerted by water and waves

31
moving under elevated structures; 3) the wave energy reflected from any engineering structures
such as groins and jetties. In addition, the debris that is swept along with the powerful flow of the
storm surge can cause great damage as it knocks into structures. Entire buildings can be lifted
from poorly designed and constructed foundations, and are washed inland to collide with other
structures (Coch).
Areas of Nags Head that are subject to storm surge from Category 1 and Category 3
hurricanes are illustrated by maps located in Appendix IV.
Tidal inlets can be cut through barrier islands by either the flood surge or the ebb surge.
Surge can also cause an existing inlet to change shape (Bush). Inlet breaching usually occurs only .
in the most intense hurricanes, or if the sound behind the barrier island is wide, or when the rain
preceding passage of the hurricane eye was heavy (Coch).
Waves
A breaking wave contains momentum, and can reach up a sloping shore to elevations
higher than the height of the wave itself. The extent of wave action depends on the direction and
speed of the wind and on the configuration of the coast. Wave action is magnified the deeper the
ocean bottom is close into shore.
Effects from waves include beach and dune erosion, overwash, destruction of vegetation,
and damage to structures. Wave -generated forces on buildings are of two types: hydrostatic
forces, caused by the pressure of still water against one side of a surface, and hydrodynamic
forces, caused by the movement of flowing water pushing against or flowing around a surface. In
addition to direct wave action, waves also cause floating debris to bash into structures, a process
known as ramrodding (Bush). Wave action also scours sand and sediments from some locations
and deposits them in others, depending on the angle of incidence of the waves to the shoreline,
and the coastal configuration. Waves can also erode and scour roads and bridges, and damage or
destroy public sewer and water lines. (See also section in this Appendix on Inlet Hazards.)
Winds
Hurricane winds have the potential to completely disrupt an entire region's
communication, utility and transportation systems. The effects of high intensity winds can be
experienced far inland as winds rip up utility lines, sever telephone wires, and block roads with
debris and fallen trees (Coch). The direct wind impact as well as flying debris (known as
missiling) can cause some of the most costly damage of a storm (Bush).
Taller buildings are particularly to susceptible to wind damage, since velocity increases
upward. In highly urbanized areas, a wind -tunnel can be created as winds are forced between tall
buildings in close proximity to one another. This results in an increase in wind speed, creating an
even stronger impact on any structures located behind the openings of the tunnels. Even when

32
buildings are designed and constructed to be structurally sound internally, the outer surfaces may
be inadequate to withstand the pressure of hurricane force winds. As outer walls and roofing
material are ripped from a structure, rain can enter the building, causing massive water damage
(Cock).
Hurricane winds can also blow salt spray further inland than it otherwise would occur,
causing damage to the natural environment, including fresh water vegetation and crops. Salt spray
and water may also be forced into estuary waters, increasing salinity to a degree that it may
impact aquatic life, including fish eggs and immature fish (Coch). In addition, barrier islands may
lose or gain sand as winds carry sediments and deposit them in new locations (Bush).
The damage caused by tree destruction during a hurricane can be considerable. During
periods of heavy saturation of the ground, as occurs with the large amount of rainfall associated
with a hurricane, trees are much more susceptible to toppling over due to the force of storm
winds, especially if the tree is of a variety with a shallow root system. Trees may also snap off at
a weak point along the trunk, and branches and foliage are often whipped off by strong winds.
Branches, foliage and tree trunks can be catapulted through the air, causing great destruction
where they land. Timber companies can suffer great losses when hurricane winds break or uproot
many acres of trees. Falling trees also cut power and phone lines and block highways, hampering
relief operations and service restoration. The loss of trees often creates a loss of habitat for
many bird species and other wildlife. (Coch).
Rainfall and Inland Flooding
Torrential rainfall can occur in a mature hurricane in its rainbands, the spiral bands of high
wind and rain that surround the eye. Significant amounts of rainfall can occur far inland when a
hurricane travels landward rather than traveling strictly along the coast. The sheer size of a
hurricane also increases the likelihood of rain to fall in areas at some distance from the center of
the storm. Thus, hurricanes pose the threat of flash and general flooding to a region much larger
than the coast.
In terms of flooding, the effects of the heavy rainfall, as well as the surge that accompanies
a hurricane, are similar to riverine flooding, and will therefore be discussed in the Flood section of
this appendix. In the context of hurricanes, it is important to remember that the flooding effects
of rain and surge are almost always exacerbated by wave and tidal action, especially close to the
coastline itself.
Tornadoes
Hurricanes may also spawn tornadoes. This event is most likely in areas to the forward
right quadrant in advance of the eye. Hurricane -generated tornadoes are generally less severe, of
shorter duration, and move along shorter, narrower paths than regular tornadoes, although they

33
can still be quite intense. For a further description of tornadoes and their effects, see section of
this Appendix on "Tornadoes."
300-Foot Zone
Hurricane experts (see Brower, et al., 1984) have argued that experience shows that the
most extensive damages from hurricanes occur within 300 feet of the ocean, in an area variously
called the "300-Foot Zone," the "CAMA Zone," or the "Neal Frank Zone." While this is more a
"rule of thumb" than a scientifically -established hazard zone, it nonetheless represents a useful
guide for measuring the extent of property at risk and appropriate mitigation measures. In Nags
Head, South Virginia Dare Trail (NC 12) in most places is just west of the 300-foot zone.
C. Probability
The least intense hurricanes are those most likely to occur in any given year, category 5
storms occur far less often than do category 1 storms, but are much more destructive over a wider
range when they do hit. Of course, it is important to remember that the damage that can result
from a particular hurricane of any category is very site -specific. Whether the location is on the
left or right side of the hurricane, the distance from the eye, as well as the degree of hurricane
development all determine the level of destruction that can be anticipated (Coch). These factors
are particularly difficult to predict in advance for any one particular area.
Evidence indicates that the actual number of hurricanes that reach landfall on the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts may be on the rise. Research into hurricane frequency indicates that there is a
strong correlation between the frequency of strong Atlantic and Gulf hurricanes and West African
rainfall. We may be currently near the end of a "dry cycle" in which powerful hurricanes have
been far less frequent than during the previous two to three decades. This lull in major hurricane
activity has coincided with an unprecedented period of development along the shoreline. The low
frequency of hurricanes in recent years has decreased the "hurricane awareness" in people that is
crucial to reducing loss of life and property. If we are indeed entering a "wet" period, when the
frequency of major hurricanes is expected to climb, more structures and people will be vulnerable
than ever before (Coch). In addition, some scientists theorize that the greenhouse effect is
warming the oceans sufficiently to provide future hurricanes with even more energy and thus
increasing their ability to penetrate farther north and inland than ever before (Coch).

34
B. Tornadoes
a. Description
Often arising out of severe thunderstorms, a tornado is a rapidly rotating vortex of air
containing extremely low atmospheric pressure, extending toward the ground from a
cumulonimbus cloud. The funnel -shaped vortex hangs from the cloud base, usually rotating
counter -clockwise, and may touch down on the ground one or more times during the storm event.
A tornado's movements are erratic and unpredictable, at speeds between 50 kilometers (30 miles)
per hour to over 110 kilometers (68 miles) per hour. Tornadoes have also been known to remain
stationary for a time (Coch). In North Carolina, hurricane -spawned tornadoes typically move in
an easterly to westerly direction. This movement is nearly opposite to the usual movement of
tornadoes in North Carolina, from the southwest toward the northeast.
Tornadoes that originate over water are known as waterspouts. Waterspouts pose an
infrequent hazard in North Carolina but they have occasionally moved inland from the Atlantic
Ocean, causing damage in coastal counties.
The very low pressure inside and the high velocity of the winds in the "walls" of the
tornado make tornadoes extremely hazardous. Tornadoes produce the highest wind speeds of any
geohazard (Committee on Natural Disasters).
The intensity, path length, width, and damage of tornadoes are rated according to a scale
developed by T. Theodore Fujita and Allen D. Pearson. (See Table)

35
TABLE
The Fujita-Pearson Scale of Tornado Intensity
(from Coch; Frazier, Committee on Natural Disasters)
Scale
Category
Speed 1ni/hr
Expected Damage
Fl
Weak
64-116km/hr
Branches broken off trees; shallow -rooted trees pushed over,
some windows broken.
F2
Moderate
117-180 km/hr
Trees snapped; surfaces peel off roofs; mobile homes pushed off
foundations.
F3
Strong
181-253 km/hr
Large trees snapped or uprooted; mobile homes destroyed; roofs
tom off frame houses.
F4
Severe
254-332 km/hr
Most trees uprooted, cars overtumed, roofs and walls removed
from well -constructed buildings.
F5
Devastating
333-418 km/hr
Well constructed houses destroyed; structures blown off
foundations; cars thrown, trees uprooted and carried some
distance away.
F6
Incredible
419-512 km/hr
Structures the size of autos moved over 90 meters; strong frame
houses lifted off foundations and disintegrate; auto -sized missiles
carried short distances; trees debarked

36
b. Effects
Tornado damage occurs in a relatively small area as compared to the damage caused by
other types of natural hazards (such as hurricanes or noeeasters). However, tornadoes usually
decimate the area where they do touch down. Tornados may be from a few tens of meters up to
1,500 meters (0.9 mile). Their average destructive track is about 7 kilometers (4 miles) long.
Tornadoes have multiple damaging effects. The wind speeds are sufficient to blow weaker
structures down or away. Mobile homes are particularly vulnerable to tornado damage. The low
pressure within the tornado creates a pressure differential between the interior and exterior of
buildings such that roofs are lifted and removed. The wind force and high pressure pick up
smaller objects (cars, animals, small structures, people) and can transport them up to hundreds of
meters (Coch).
Much of the devastating damage caused by tornadoes can be attributed to wind -induced
forces tearing structures apart from the outside. Evidence gathered during postevent damage
surveys also suggests that a "domino effect" plays a key role in much tornado damage (Committee
on Natural Disasters) - the tremendous amount of debris that becomes mobilized during a tornado
becomes "shrapnel," and flies through the air, impacting nearby structures. Due to the tornadoes
incredible wind speeds, normally innocuous debris such as cardboard, asphalt roofing tiles, sticks,
and fine gravel can become lethal objects (Cock).
c. Probability
Tornadoes with extreme speeds that rate high on the Fujita scale (F5) are usually attained
in only a few tornadoes nationwide each year. In 98 percent of all tornadoes, speeds near the
ground are considerably less than 200 mph. In 50 percent of all tornadoes, speeds are less than
100 mph and should cause only minor damage to structures (Committee on Natural Disasters).
Although tornadoes have been reported in North Carolina throughout the year, most of
them have occurred in the spring, particularly in March, April, May and June. The most severe
tornadoes have also taken place during the spring; more than one half of all tornadoes of intensity
F2 or greater occurred during spring months. The greatest number of tornadoes have occurred
during the mid to late afternoon, with the least number taking place in the night.

37
C. Thunderstorms
a. Description
Thunderstorm activity includes lightning, the primary hazard to people/as well as intense
local winds and hail. Thunderstorms may spawn tornadoes.
Thunderstorms are common throughout North Carolina, and have occurred in all months.
These storms serve as a mechanism to readjust patterns of heat and moisture in the air, and to
provide more stable atmospheric conditions. Atmospheric instability refers to conditions in which
air temperature decreases rapidly with altitude. While air generally cools with increasing altitude,
the rate of this temperature drop varies. When the rate of change is great, instability results. Air
parcels are normally cooled when they rise into the atmosphere. However, if the air temperature
decreases rapidly with height, a rising parcel of air will remain warmer than the air surrounding it.
Normally, air parcels cool as they rise, ceasing to rise when they cool to the temperature of the
surrounding air. When the air temperature drops rapidly with height, rising parcels continue their
ascent, carrying with them a supply of energy in the form of water vapor. When the water vapor
cools, it condenses, releasing heat energy to the surrounding air mass. It is this energy which
causes hazardous effects.
Afternoon thunderstorms often result from solar radiation heating the ground, and
evaporating large quantities of water which condense in the atmosphere. Large quantities of heat
energy are then released into the atmosphere, causing convective instability from warm air parcels
located above a cooler air mass. The condensed water vapor falls as rain and creates a downdraft
of air parallel to the previous updraft. This combination of updraft and downdraft forms a
thunderstorm cell. Cells grow, multiply, and die in the normal course of a thunderstorm, creating
wind shears and turbulence. The ground below receives rainfall, and strong gusts of cold wind
rush out over the area. Lightning is generated from the clouds, and tornadoes may be created
from the storm. Eventually the atmosphere becomes overtumed as the supply of warm air is
eliminated and the storms cease.
The most likely occurrence of atmospheric instability is along cold fronts, particularly
where a polar cold front intrudes into moist tropical air. With this condition, a line of
thunderstorms may exist for several hundred miles along the squall line. On a local scale,
topographic conditions may contribute to atmospheric instability. Air forced over hills or
mountains, or air currents merged by passing through mountainous areas may also initiate
convective instability. Large cities which develop an urban heat island also attract thunderstorms.
The heat island tends to initiate updrafts over the city. Thunderstorms which are developing in
the area may then be attracted to this updraft.
A typical thunderstorm may be three miles wide at its base, intrude 40,000 feet into the
air, and contain half a million tons of condensed water. Large thunderstorms may reach as high as
60,000 feet and spread over 500 square miles. Thunderstorms contain tremendous amounts of

38
energy, acquired from heat released from the condensation of water vapor into water or ice. The
condensation of a half million tons of water releases 300 trillion calories of energy, equivalent to
about 100 million kilowatt hours of electricity, or several atomic bombs of the strength used over
Hiroshima in World War H (Frazier). The energy represented by the motion of air within a
thunderstorm is only a small fraction of the total energy generated by the system. Yet one
average thunderstorm contains 100 times as much kinetic energy as a tornado. The destructive
power of a tornado results from the intense concentration of energy; while thunderstorms may
contain much greater amounts of energy, it is spread over a greater area and is therefore less
intense.
Thunderstorms themselves are not a major hazard. They do, however, give rise to other
hazards such as tornados, and are the main mechanism for generating lightning and hail. In
addition, large amounts of rainfall from thunderstorms may cause flash flooding. '
Lightning
Thunder is generated as a result of lightning briefly heating the air to extremely high
temperatures and the air in the conducting channel expanding within a few millionths of a second.
This rapid expansion produces a shock wave and noise. Lightning occurs as a result of a buildup
of charged ions in thunderclouds. The top portion of thunderclouds tends to become positively
charged, the bottom part, negatively charged. The cause of this separation of electrical charge is
unknown. As the thundercloud moves, its negatively charged base induces the buildup of a
positive charge over the ground below. This distribution of ions produces an electrical gradient
both within the cloud and between the area of negative charge and the areas of positive charge.
Once a leader channel has been established, positive ions race along this channel, which can be up
to 60 miles long. This produces the visible flash of lightning. The amount of energy concentrated
in a lightning bolt varies, but can reach 250 kilowatt hours.
Hail
The formation of hail depends on the strength of updrafts in thunderclouds, which depend
in turn, on the intensity of the heating of the earth's surface. The more intense the surface heating
and the steeper the temperature gradient within the thundercloud, the more likely the occurrence
of hail. Almost all hail storms form along a cold front carried aloft by the jet stream. The
presence of wind shear also facilitates hail formation.
The size of hail is related directly to thunderstorm severity and size. Larger hail requires
winds of higher speeds to transport it within thunderclouds. Some hailstones have multiple layers,
the result of many trips up and down through a thundercloud. Most hailstorms in the United
States occur in late spring and early summer, as the jet stream moves northward.

39
b. Effects
Lightning is a localized, repetitive hazard. Tall objects, such as radio and television
towers are continually struck because of their greater proximity to negatively -charged cloud
bases. When lightning strikes a structure, fire is likely to result. Lightning is also a severe hazard
to trees, and can scorch or ignite vegetation and may initiate a forest fire.
Lightning also kills and injures people. Lightning has killed more Americans than any
other meteorological event -- tornadoes, floods, and tropical cyclones or hurricanes.
Hail, on the other hand, is recorded as killing only two people in the United States.
However, hail is one of the most destructive hazards to agricultural crops, causing millions of
dollars of damage to the U.S. annually. Hail has also injured livestock and has caused damage to
structures and vehicles.
The effects of flash flooding resulting from thunderstorms varies with local floodplain
characteristics, and is covered in detail in the section on flooding. -
c. Probability
The greatest chance of death or injury from lightning occurs during the summer months, in
open outdoor locations. Statistics show that most deaths and injuries from lightning occur during
the period from May through September.
Lightning most often strikes people who are outdoors. In North Carolina, as in the entire
nation, lightning victims are increasingly likely to have been participating in some form of outdoor
recreation when they were struck. The combination of greater participation in outdoor activities
and greater occurrence of thunderstorms during the summer months is responsible for the
relatively high number of deaths and injuries.
Lightning is a unique hazard in there being a relatively high probability of death if struck.
Persons caught in hurricanes, tornadoes, and earthquakes are very likely to survive. With
lightning, for every three persons injured in North Carolina, one has been killed. Livestock is
also subject to death and injury from lightning.
Lightning has also ignited forest fires. According to U.S. Forest Service statistics, 194
forest fires of a total of 4,773 fires in North Carolina were attributed to lightning in 1993.

40
D. Nor'easters
a. Description
While hurricanes form in tropical regions and move northward towards the North Carolina
coast, other coastal storms are extratropical, such as nor'easters, which are massive low-pressure
systems with cyclonic (counterclockwise) winds that originate in mid -latitudes and move
eastwards and up the Atlantic coast. Noeeasters form in various locations, wherever unstable air
produces significant temperature and pressure differences. Noeeasters which affect North
Carolina generally form as a result of a low pressure area moving eastward over the Appalachian
Mountains and off the coast. A blocking high-pressure system causes the low pressure system to
settle over an area of warm water in the Gulf Stream. These systems intensify near the coast as a
result of convection currents that are enhanced by the presence of steep topography near the
coast, cold inshore upwelled water (leading to a steep sea -surface temperature gradient between
the coastline and the offshore warm current) and rapid input of latent heat of evaporation obtained
from winds blowing over the warm offshore current.
Wind speeds of a nor'easter rarely attain hurricane level (74 miles per hour). However,
their massive size affects broad coastal sections as long as 930 miles, usually for several days
(Coch). Ifthe atmospheric steering currents that push noeeasters northward along the coast are
not particularly strong, the storm may travel quite slowly or stall off the coast, and create
substantial damage on coastal areas through large amounts of rainfall, high storm surges, strong
wave action, and periods of high winds.
The Dolan -Davis scale separates nor'easters into five classes, based on their power and
effect (see Table). The Dolan -Davis scale is not based on wind velocity but on the size of the
waves and the duration of the storm and is expressed in terms of intensity of property damage
(Bush). Over 50% of noeeasters are weak systems (class 1); only 3% of all noeeasters are class 4
and 5 events, capable of great damage (Coch).

41
TABLE
The Dolan -Davis Nor'easter Intensity Scale
(from Davis and Dolan. 1993. American Scientist, v. 18, p. 428-39, Sept -Oct. In Coch; Bush)
Storm
Class
Beach Erosion
Dune Erosion
Overwash
Property Damage
1 (Weak)
Minor changes
None
No
No
2 (Moderate)
Modest; mostly to
Minor
No
Modest
lower beach
3 (Significant)
Erosion extends
Can be significant
No
Loss of many
across beach
structures at local level
4 (Severe)
Severe beach erosion
Severe dune erosion
On low
Loss of structures
and recession
or destruction
beaches
at community scale
5 (Extreme)
Extreme beach
Dunes destroyed over
Massive in
Extensive at regional
erosion
extensive areas
sheets and
scale: millions of
Channels
dollars

42
b. Effects
Nor'easters develop closer to the coast of the United States, and with greater speed, than
do hurricanes. Nor'easters may develop rapidly, often in a matter of hours, and often form at
night, when the sea water temperature gradient is greatest. While hurricanes can normally be
identified and tracked for a period of several days, nor'easters usually provide much less warning
time for residents of coastal areas.
As a nor'easter moves along the Atlantic coast, northeasterly winds cover the coastal area
with rain or snow and massive waves pound the coast, destroying structures and causing massive
beach and dune erosion (Coch). Flooding and storm surge damage can be substantial.
Transportation and communication systems can be destroyed due to snow and ice during a
nor'easter.
c. Probability
Analysis of nor'easter frequency by researchers reveals fewer nor'easters during the 1980s.
However, the frequency of major nor'easters (classes 4 and 5) has increased in recent years. In
the period from 1987 to 1993, at least one class 4 or 5 storm has occurred each year, a situation
duplicated only once in the past 50 years. Of the eight storms in class 5 during the period studied,
seven (88%) have occurred since 1960 (Coch). It is unclear at this time whether these findings
provide evidence that serious nor'easters will become more frequent in the near future. However,
it is undisputable that more lives and property will be in danger from future storms as the coastal
area becomes more developed.

E. Sea Level Rise
Gases (both natural and man-made) that are present in the Earth's atmosphere can act like
the walls of a greenhouse by preventing heat energy from being reflected back into space. The
trapped heat energy warms theair inside the "greenhouse," creating an artificially warm climate.
While the greenhouse effect keeps Earth inhabitable, many scientists believe that anthropogenic
activities -- especially the production of carbon dioxide (which results form the burning of fossil
fuels and natural gas), tropical deforestation and burning, as well as organic material in exposed
soil -- have exacerbated the greenhouse effect, and we now face a potentially serious problem
(Coch).
The greatest geohazard from the greenhouse effect will occur along coastlines. Warmer
temperatures following the last glaciation are causing the slow melting of continental ice masses
over Antarctica and Greenland. This melt -water drains into the ocean, resulting in a general sea -
level rise. For the past few thousand years, sea level has risen at about 0.3 meter (1 foot) per
century. The rate has been predicted to increase to 1 to 2 meters per century (3 to 6.5 feet). The
greenhouse effect may accelerate sea -level rise, because global warming will accelerate ice sheet
melting. Further, as ocean water heats, it expands, raising the ocean surface yet higher. This
thermal expansion is predicted to contribute more to sea -level rise than the melting of ice. Very
few scientists question that sea -level rise has accelerated. The only controversy is over how fast it
is rising (Cock).
As a consequence of sea -level rise, the shoreline along the world's oceans is migrating
towards the landward side. Land, and buildings that once fronted the ocean are now or will be
submerged. All structures placed in such a position will eventually be destroyed, despite
temporary stop -gap measures such as engineered erosion control (Cock).
Rising sea -level will also extend saltwater further onto the land. Freshwater marshes and
swamps will become covered with saltier water. Animals and plants that are sensitive to salinity
will find their habitats destroyed or displaced (Coch).
Serious disruption will occur to drinking water supplies as sea level rises, particularly in
areas that rely on coastal aquifers for their water supply. As sea level rises, saltwater will
encroach into coastal aquifers, contaminating wells that are the principal water supply for many
communities (Cock).
Sea level rise poses a special problem for the low-lying, sandy barrier islands of the
Atlantic coast. For example, on a gently sloping coastal plain, a 0.3 meter (1 foot) rise in sea level
can result in a 60 to 90 meter (200 to 300 foot) landward movement of the shoreline. Thus, even
houses that are elevated on pilings away from the shore today will be destroyed as water
eventually reaches the pilings and scours away the sand that supports them (Coch).

44
Barrier islands respond to rising sea level by erosion on their oceanic sides and deposition
of the material by overwash on their back sides. Thus, with time, the ocean front recedes and the
back side of the island grows landward in a process called barrier rollover. While the island
retains its width, the entire island is displaced landward with time. The bay width remains the
same as well, because the landward shoreline of the bay also recedes as sea level rises. This will
damage structures there too, much to the surprise of the inhabitants who thought living there
would protect then from wave damage! (Cock)
The barrier -migration scenario applies only to coasts where engineering structures have
not been built to control erosion. Walls and other structures built to protect property prevent the
overwash that allows the back side of the island to build landward as sea level rises. In short, a
barrier island that is protected by engineered structures will only get narrower with time.
Ironically, the only way to preserve barrier islands as sea level rises is to let their fronts erode, and
allow the sediment to overwash across the island to build out the bayward side (Coch).
Further implications of sea -level rise will affect communities in hurricane -prone areas.
Hurricanes can cause a storm surge many meters above mean sea level. Future damage will
almost certainly be greater if overall sea level has risen. The problem is even more serious
because the warming of the ocean may provide more energy to generate more frequent, more
intense hurricanes (Coch).

45
F. Wildfire
a. Description
Any instance of uncontrolled burning in grasslands, brush, or woodlands constitutes a
wildfire. Wildfires are primarily rural hazard usually resulting in some damage to ecosystems.
Timber and forage may be destroyed, animal habitats disrupted, soil nutrient stores depleted, and
amenity value greatly decreased for years afterwards.
The potential for a major fire hazard depends on the characteristics of the fuel, the climate,
and fire behavior. While natural fires occur in any area in which there is vegetation, flammability
varies by species, moisture content, and is influenced by the climate. Temperate, primarily
deciduous forests, such as those in North Carolina are most vulnerable to fire in autumn, when the
foliage dries out. Long hot summers dry vegetation and increase susceptibility to fire in the
autumn. Grasses are least pone to ignition in the morning, when their moisture content is greatest.
The coastal areas of North Carolina are at fairly high risk from wildfires as compared to some
other areas of the state.
Fire behavior and topography are instrumental in determining the final severity of the fire
hazard. Fires often accelerate as the day progresses because of a decrease in the moisture content
of the fuels, and wind speed and atmospheric instability increase due to diurnal heating. Wildfires
radiate heat which can dry out material and can start spot fires in advance of the main fire.
The rate of movement of forest fires increases exponentially in proportion to increases in
wind speed, however, grass fires decelerate with winds above 30 milers per hour. Since grass
fires can move up to eight times as fast as forest fires, they pose a greater threat to evacuation
proceedings. Fires also move faster on an upslope than on level terrain.
If a fire occurs in an area with atmospheric instability, conditions of convective instability
may be created by.the fire's heating of the atmosphere. Fire whirlwinds can be generated under
conditions of extreme instability, and can transport embers several hundred feet beyond the fire to
unburned areas.
While many wildfires have been caused by lightning strikes, humans are the greatest cause
of wildfires. The progressive expansion of human activities into heavily vegetated areas has not
only increased the number of wildfires but also increased the losses to life and property. Main
sources of ignition have been agricultural fires and discarded cigarette butts and campfires which
have gotten out of control.
As development has spread into areas which were previously rural, new residents have
been relatively unaware of the hazards posed by wildfires and have used highly flammable
materials for constructing structures. This has not only increased the threat to life and property,
but has also resulted in a greater population of people less prepared to cope with wildfire hazards.

46
b. Effects
While wildfires cause disruption of natural ecosystems, the effects of these fires are usually
measured in terms of loss of life, property, marketable timber, and non -timber crop value. Areas
which have been burned are also subject to increased soil erosion. Erosion, besides stripping
away topsoil, causes sedimentation of streams which lowers water quality and adversely affects
fish and other aquatic life.
G. Flooding
Coastal flooding is a result of storm surge, wind -driven waves, and heavy rainfall. These
conditions are produced by hurricanes during the summer and fall, and by nor'easters and other
large coastal storms during the winter and spring. Storm surges may overturn barrier islands and
push seawater up coastal rivers and inlets, blocking the downstream flow of island runoff. Many
acres of crops and forest lands may be inundated by both saltwater and fresh water. Fresh water
flooding may accompany saltwater flooding, particularly with storms having heavy rains. Escape
routes, particularly from barrier islands, may be cut off quickly, stranding residents in flooded
areas and hampering rescue efforts.
The population which is most vulnerable to flood hazards are those people residing within
coastal storm surge inundation areas. Vulnerability varies within these general areas. Depicting
the topography or elevation of the land above mean sea level is an effective way to delineate areas
that are vulnerable to coastal storms, and flood zones in Nags Head have been mapped for
different categories of storms.
Flood Zones
V-Zone/Special Flood Hazard Area. This zone delineates areas of the Town which will be
subject to substantial wave action during a 100-year storm (technically, areas of the coast which
could be subjected to waves three feet high). The V-Zone constitutes a stretch of oceanfront
from the southern to the northern borders of the Town.
A-Zone/100-year Flood/Special Flood Hazard Area. This zone delineates those areas in
the community which have an annual probability of one percent of being flooded, i.e., areas which
will be inundated by the 100-year flood. In Nags Head these zones are located over much (66%)
of the jurisdiction. Specifically, these areas include most of the land south of Jockey's Ridge
(south of Soundside Road), including Cedar and Pond islands. In addition, in the northern sector
of the Town, much of the land between South Croatan Highway (US 158) and South Virginia
Dare Trail (NC 12) is in the A -Zone, as well as portions of the coastal dunes.
X-Zone/Area of Minimal Flooding. These are areas where flooding is unlikely but are
included in the analysis to complete the picture of the Town. These are areas of relatively high
elevation and extend from Hockey's Ridge north and west of South Croatan Highway (US 158),

47
to the Town's northern boundary (excluding the estuarine area to the west). Also, the C-Zone
constitutes a line located along most of the ocean frontal dunes and most of this area lies withing
the 300-foot zone.
H. Dune Gaps
Notches in dunes are naturally exploited by waves and storm surge during a storm,
increasing the potential for damage to development behind the notch. Plugging these notches is a
simple and relatively inexpensive way to reduce the threat of waves and storm surge in these
areas.
Nags Head has several stretches of shoreline where dunes are missing. Although the gaps
are large, they could be plugged to increase protection from moderate storms. A gap near the
center of Nags Head has possible implications for evacuation as well as for property damage. The
potential flooding of Whalebone Junction several hours before a storm hits while evacuation will
still be ongoing is exacerbated by the lack of dunes. Building dunes to close the gap is an
inexpensive way to "buy" several more hours of evacuation time (Bush, et al.).
L Inlet Hazards
Part of the following discussion is adapted from Bush, et al.
Inlets are located between islands, connecting backwaters and ocean. Inlets require
special consideration in applying principles of property damage mitigation because a special set of
natural processes are at work. Communities and property owners close to existing and potential
inlets face a special set of hazards.
Tidal inlets are not fixed features. Inlets can migrate in one direction or another, reverse
direction of migration, open and close, narrow or widen, or follow any combination of these
patterns. Because of these dynamics, the North Carolina Coastal Area Management Act
designates inlet hazard areas as "areas of environmental concern" which are subject to more
rigorous management requirements.
Relict and historical inlets are now closed; however, their location and recognition is
important because inlets can re-form in previous positions, or they may leave behind a
characteristic geomorphic "signal' that may influence whether or not an inlet will re -open in a
nearby location.
Inlets form during storms. Most probably form when a storm system passes over the
island and the water piled inside the sound by landward -directed winds is suddenly forced seaward
by the reversed winds. The water forced across the island catastrophically seeks out low and
narrow island stretches to carve new inlets.

The term relict inlet refers to any inlet that was open in the past but that is older than
recorded history and does not appear on any reliable map or chart. Relict inlets are inferred from
geomorphic and geologic criteria. The term historical inlet refers to open inlets observed since
the time of the first reliable charts and maps, but which are now closed. Historical inlets often
result in modem zones that are highly vulnerable to inlet formation.
While the prediction of inlet formation and their precise location is highly uncertain,
particular physical features can be used to identity likely sites (Lynch, 1983). ( Also see Table). In
an analysis of potential inlets on the North Carolina coast, the Whalebone Junction area was
identified based on several factors: maximum elevation, island width, canal dimensions, and rate
of erosion. Width and elevation of a barrier island appear to be the most important factors.
The potential Nags Head inlet identified by Lynch is a canal which enters the island near
Whalebone Junction. Lynch calls this site "extremely hazardous," based on a composite of several
of the crucial primary and secondary factors. Drawing a straight line across the island from this
canal and placing a 425-foot erodible area (estimated width of area subject to erosion) on each
side of this line yields the Whalebone Junction incipient inlet hazard zone.
Although not identified by Lynch, local experience (see Brower, Collins, and Beatley,
1984) indicates that there are two other areas that should be considered.
Nags Head Cove/Incipient Inlet. A second potential inlet has been identified in the Nags
Head Cove area. Here finger canals have been excavated from the sound side approximately
1,000 feet perpendicular to the shoreline. This means that storm waters from the sound .would
have a clear fimnel traversing the island more than halfway to the ocean. This represents a serious
inlet threat, and unfortunately is located in the center of a large subdivision. Extending the path of
the longest canal to the Atlantic Ocean, and placing a 325-foot erodible area (estimated width of
area subject to erosion) on each side of this line, yields an identifiable hazard zone. This is a crude
delineation, as is the case with the other incipient inlets, and is meant only to provide decision
makers with a general idea of the geographical area of concern.
Soundside Road/Incinient Inlet. A third potential inlet can be identified in the Soundside
Road area just south of Jockey's Ridge State Park. This area has been identified because of its
relatively frequent flooding. Extending the path of this road, and placing a 100-foot erodible area
(estimated width of area subject to erosion) on each side yields an identifiable, albeit crude, hazard
zone. This same area was the site of extreme flooding and damage alongside Soundside Road
(Jigsaw Road) in 1962.
The incipient inlets of Nags Head are indicated on maps which may be found in Appendix
IV.

49
Table. RATING OF FACTORS RESPONSIBLE NEW INLET FORMATION
OUTER BANKS, NORTH CAROLINA (Source: Lvnch and Benton. in Bush)
PARAMETER
AVERAGE
DANGEROUS
HAZARDOUS
EXTREMELY
HAZARDOUS
Pril�
Island width
2,300'
>2,600'
2,000'-2,600'
500'-2,000'
Maximum Elevation
*
>12.5'
7.5'-12.5'
4.5'
Secondary
Lagoon Width
22.4 miles
0-14 miles
14-30 miles**
>30 miles
Canal Approach"*
1,500'
>1,500'
1,000'-1,500'
500'-1,000'
Canal Width
150'
<100,
100'-200'
200'-300'
Erosion Ratelyear
4.5'
<.O'
3.0'-6.0'
>6.0'
* Average 25-year storm surge is 7.5 feet above mean sea level. Average 50 year storm wave height is 12.5 feet above
mean sea level
** Includes sites with lagoon widths > 30 miles in one direction
*** Distance between the ocean shore and the farthest canal penetration
Canal refers to finger canal. The ranking of average to extremely hazardous refers to the relative tendency for an inlet to form.

51
APPENDIX H. VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS
A. Introduction
Risk assessment involves a two-step process, combining information on physical hazards with
information about vulnerability. As provided in Appendix I, the needed information on physical hazards
includes types of processes, their intensity and frequency, plus identification of area of potential impacts.
Defining the natural hazards to which the community is subject, measuring the vulnerability, and
evaluating the risks are the preliminary steps leading to avoiding the hazards and/or reducing the risks
and in turn the vulnerability. The vulnerability of a community refers to exposed population, the type
and location of structures, critical facilities such as hospitals, shelters, and power plants, evacuation
routes, and natural resources (Bush, et al., citations omitted).
B. Mapping Nags Head's Vulnerability
The preliminary stage of research was to procure existing maps or create new maps illustrating
the various factors that determine the vulnerability of Nags Head to natural hazards, and to enter them
into the computer -generated modeling system. These maps were then layered to produce a complete
"picture" of Nags Head. Through this layered -map approach, we can graphically depict which
geographic areas of Nags Head are most vulnerable to natural hazards, and why. Appendix IV contains
hard -copy cross-section samples of some of the maps used in this analysis, although, of course, it is not
possible to convey the layered effect in this document.
The first step of the mapping research was to construct a basic layout of Nags Head, indicating
its boundaries, major roads, and natural areas, as well as the existing zoning districts. The next step
involved procuring county tax maps, which portray the location, tax value, and current use of each
parcel of land within Nags Head. The tax maps also provide information regarding the date of
construction of the primary buildings on each lot. This data is significant in that it allows us to
determine whether a particular structure was built before or after the Federal Insurance Rate Maps were
put in place. (Note that Appendix IV does not include a copy of the tax maps of Nags Head; the lot
lines on the maps would be illegible if printed at a size to fit this document).
We could now analyze the Town by vacant and developed parcels, by zoning district, by tax
value, and by pre- and post -FIRM construction. To these maps were added hazard identification data,
including the flood zones of all Nags Head property, the location of incipient inlets, and the areas
subject to hurricane storm surge from both Category 1 and Category 3 hurricanes.
This collective data allowed us to analyze the vulnerability of Nags Head parcel by parcel, as
well as assess the vulnerability of the Town as a whole. In terms of personal safety and property
damage, vacant land is presently the least vulnerable to the impact of natural hazards, although
depending upon its zoning designation, land that is currently vacant may in the future be developed, thus
increasing its vulnerability.'
'Note, however, that the total acreage of vacant land indicated on the maps of Nags Head is a
misleading figure, since a substantial portion of this land is undevelopable wetlands, or otherwise

52
C. Charting Nags Head's Vulnerability
After creating the mapping system to visually portray the vulnerability of Nags Head to natural
hazards, the data was re -structured in the form of charts to summarize the potential dollar losses Nags
Head could experience in the event of a natural hazard of various dimensions. These charts appear in
greater detail in Appendix IV. Here we summarize the most pertinent information in the terms of tax
figures. Note that this analysis does not take into account the market value of these properties, which
would be considerably higher.
Analysis using the most current SLOSH model report shows that 59% of all structures in Nags
Head (at an aggregate tax value of $400,639,079) are vulnerable to a Category 1 hurricane, and 83% of
all structures (at an aggregate tax value of $568,944,769) are likely to be impacted during a Category 3
hurricane.
Analysis also indicates that 42% of all developed property in Nags Head (total tax value
$290,527,689) lies within the 300-Foot Zone, while 4.5% (total tax value $30,679,090) is vulnerable to
incipient inlets. Property within the VE Flood Zone is valued at $236,887,019, and property within the
AE Flood Zone is valued at $254,964,860.
The vulnerability of vacant areas (which make up 28% of the total acreage of Nags Head) is also
significant. 48% of all vacant land in Nags Head, or 487.74 acres, is vulnerable to Category 1
hurricanes, while 89%, or 912.18 acres would be impacted during a Category 3 hurricane. 10% of
Nags Head's vacant land is within the 300-Foot Zone (100.75 acres), and 3%, or 28.85 acres is subject
to incipient inlets. 9% (94.57 acres) of all vacant land falls in the VE Flood Zone, and 69% (704.38
acres) within the AE Flood Zone.
unavailable for development (e.g., Nags Head Woods property owned by the Town or the Nature
Conservancy).

53
APPENDIX M. CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT
In order to formulate and carry out an effective mitigation program, a local community must
have the requisite capability to do so. For instance, whether a particular municipality will be able to
implement meaningful mitigation measures depends in large part on whether funding its available.
Fiscal capability can be augmented by grants and loans available from Federal and State governments
for disaster relief. Nags Head has addressed this issue by stating its policy to retain an Assistance
Facilitator -Consultant, who is responsible for determining and coordinating the procurement of various
types of assistance as it becomes available.
Another aspect of capability, and one that varies widely from community to community, involves
political will. Without the commitment and dedication of civic leaders, as well as citizen support,
mitigation programs can be difficult to create, and impossible to implement. In Nags Head, however,
officials, planners, residents, and business leaders have realized the advantages of having a mitigation
plan in place before the next disaster strikes, so that the community is less vulnerable to the impact of
the hazard and also better equipped to recover from any damages that it does sustain. This commitment
on the part of the Town has been articulated through many documents, plans, ordinances and policies
that incorporate the concept of mitigation into daily operations, not the least of which is this Hazard
Mitigation Plan.
Even the most politically committed of communities are powerless to enact a hazard mitigation
program without the requisite legal capability. The legal capability of a local government depends
upon the general powers of governance that are bestowed upon it by its home' state, as well as the
locally -enacted rules and regulations by which it operates. The following discussion outlines the basic
legal capability of the Town of Nags Head to engage in mitigation.
As a general rule, local governments such as Nags Head have only that legal authority which is
granted to them by their home state. This principle, that all power is vested in the State and can only be
exercised to the extent it is delegated, is known as "Dillon's Rule," and applies to all North Carolina's
political subdivisions. It is important to note that it is State, not Federal law that controls what a local
government can legally do. While various Federal laws, regulations, and programs affect local
government activities, without proper delegation from the State, a local government may not act.
Enabling legislation in North Carolina grants a wide array of powers to its cities, town and counties.
Many of the powers enumerated in the North Carolina General Statutes can be wielded to craft hazard
mitigation measures at the local level. However, local regulations which are enacted within the bounds
of the states enabling authority do not automatically meet with judicial acceptance; they must fit the
constitutional framework within which all acts of government take place. The Federal and North
Carolina Constitutions establish a series of mandates which must be followed during any governmental
undertaking. For instance, the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, and its state counterpart,
require that private property be taken for a public purpose only upon payment of just compensation.
This constraint on government powers applies to condemnation of property (eminent domain) and to
regulations that may "take" an owner's property if they are too restrictive. The Fourteenth Amendment
requires that all governmental activity be undertaken only with due process of law. Any restrictions
which local governments impose on land use or building practices must follow the procedural

54
requirements of the Fourteenth Amendment, or risk invalidation. Any mitigation measures that are
undertaken by the Town in its regulatory capacity must be worded and enforced carefully within the
parameters established by the State and Federal Constitutions, even when such measures are enacted in
order to protect the community from the impacts of natural hazards.
Within the limits of Dillon's Rule and the Constitutions, local governments in North Carolina
have a wide latitude within which to institute mitigation programs, policies, and actions. All local
government powers fall into one of four basic groups (although some governmental activities may be
classified as more than one type of power): regulation, acquisition, taxation and spending. Hazard
mitigation measures can be carried out under each of the four types of powers.
Regulation (General Police Power): Local governments in North Carolina have been granted
broad regulatory powers in their jurisdictions. North Carolina General Statutes bestow the general
police power on local governments, allowing them to enact and enforce ordinances which define,
prohibit, regulate or abate acts, omissions, or conditions detrimental to the health, safety, and welfare of
the people, and to define and abate nuisances (including public health nuisances). Since hazard
mitigation can be included under the police power (as protection of public health, safety and welfare),
the Town may include requirements for hazard mitigation in local ordinances. Local governments may
also use their ordinance -making power to abate "nuisances," which could include, by local definition,
any activity or condition making people or property more vulnerable to any hazard. (See, e.g.,
N.C.G.S. Ch. 160A Art. 8 (Delegation and Exercise of the General Power to Cities and Towns); Ch.
153A, Art. 6 (Delegation and Exercise of the General Power to Counties).
Regulation (Building Codes and Building Inspection): Many structural mitigation measures
involve constructing and retrofitting homes, businesses and other structures according to standards
designed to make the buildings more resilient to the impacts of natural hazards. Many of these
standards are imposed through the building code. North Carolina has a state compulsory building code
which applies throughout the state (N.C.G.S. 143-138(c)). However, municipalities may adopt codes
for their respective areas if approved by the state as providing "adequate minimum standards"
(N.C.G.S. 143-138(e)). Local regulations cannot be more stringent or less restrictive than the state
code. Exempted from the state code are: public utility facilities other than buildings; liquefied
petroleum gas and liquid fertilizer installations; farm buildings outside municipal jurisdictions (note that
exemptions apply only to state, not local permits).
Local governments in North Carolina are also empowered to carry out building inspection.
N.C.G.S. Ch. 160A, Art. 19, Part 5; and Ch, 153A Art 18, Part 4 empower cities and counties to create
an inspection department, and enumerates its duties and responsibilities, which include enforcing state
and local laws relating to the construction of buildings, installation of plumbing, electrical, heating
systems, etc.; building maintenance; and other matters.
Regulation (Land Use): Regulatory powers granted by the state to local governments are the
most basic manner in which a local government can control the use of land within its jurisdiction.
Through various land use regulatory powers, a local government can control the amount, timing,
density, quality, and location of new development; all these characteristics of growth can determine the
level of vulnerability of the community in the event of a natural hazard. Land use regulatory powers

55
include the power to engage in planning, enact and enforce zoning ordinances, floodplain ordinances,
and subdivision controls.
Zoning. Zoning is traditional and very common tool available to local governments to control
the use of land. Broad enabling authority for municipalities to engage in zoning is granted in N.C.G.S.
160A-381. The statutory purpose for the grant of power is to promote health, safety, morals, or the
general welfare of the community. Land "uses" controlled by zoning include the type of use (e.g.,
residential, commercial, industrial), as well as minimum specifications for use such as lot size, building
height and set backs, density of population, and the like. The local government is authorized to divide
its territorial jurisdiction into districts, and to regulate and restrict the erection, construction,
reconstruction, alteration, repair or use of buildings, structures, or land within those districts (N.C.G. S.
160A-382). Districts may include general -use districts, overlay districts, and special use districts or
conditional use districts. Zoning ordinances consist of maps and written text.
Floodway Regulation: The North Carolina General Statutes declare that the channel and a
portion of the floodplain of all the State's streams will be designated as a floodway, either by the local
government or by the State. The legislatively declared purpose of designating these areas as a floodway
is to help control and minimize the extent of floods by preventing obstructions which inhibit water flow
and increase flood height and damage and other losses (both public and private) in flood hazard areas,
azard and to promote the public health, safety, and welfare of the citizens of North Carolina in flood h
areas (N.C.G.S. 143-215.51)
To carry out this purpose, local governments are empowered to grant permits for the use of the
floodways, including the placement of any artificial obstruction in the floodway (N.C.G.S. 143-215.53 -
215.54). No permit is required for certain uses, including agricultural, wildlife and related uses; ground
level areas such as parking areas, rotary aircraft ports; lawns, gardens, golf courses, tennis courts, parks,
open space, and similar private and public recreational uses (N.C.G.S. 143-215.55).
The procedures that are laid out for issuing permits for floodway use require the local
government to consider the dangerous effects a proposed artificial obstruction may create by causing
water to be backed up or diverted; or the danger that the obstruction will be swept downstream to the
injury of others; and by the injury or damage that may occur at the site of the obstruction itself. Local
governments are to take into account anticipated development in the foreseeable future which may be
adversely affected by the obstruction, as well as existing development (N.C.G.S. 143-215.57(a)).
Planning. In order to exercise the regulatory powers conferred by the General Statutes, local
governments in North Carolina are required to create or designate a planning agency (N.C.G.S. 160A-
387). The planning agency may perform a number of duties, including: make studies of the area;
determine objectives; prepare and adopt plans for achieving those objectives; develop and recommend
policies, ordinances, and administrative means to implement plans; and perform other related duties
(N.C.G.S. 160A 361). The importance of the planning powers of local governments is emphasized in
N.C.G.S. 160A-383, which requires that zoning regulations be made in accordance with a
comprehensive plan. While the ordinance itself may provide the evidence that zoning is being
conducted "in accordance with a plan," the existence of a separate planning document ensures that the

56
government is developing regulations and ordinances that are consistent with the overall goals of the
community.
Subdivision re lu ation. Subdivision regulations control the division of land into parcels for the
purpose of building development or sale. Flood -related subdivision controls typically require that
subdividers install adequate drainage facilities, and design water and sewer systems to minimize flood
damage and contamination. They prohibit the subdivision of land subject to flooding unless flood
hazards are overcome through filling or other measures and prohibit filling of floodway areas. They
require that subdivision plans be approved prior to the sale of land. Subdivision regulations are a more
limited tool than zoning and only indirectly affect the type of use made of land or minimum
specifications for structures.
Broad subdivision control enabling authority for municipalities is granted in N.C.G.S. 160-371,
and in 153-330 for counties outside of municipalities and municipal extraterritorial areas. Subdivision is
defined as all divisions of a tract or parcel of land into two or more lots and all divisions involving a new
street (N.C.G.S. 160A-376).
Acquisition: The power of acquisition can be a useful tool for pursuing mitigation goals. Often
the most effective method for completely "hazard proofing" a particular piece of property or area is to
acquire the property (either in fee or a lesser interest, such as an easement), thus removing the property
from the private market and eliminating or reducing the possibility of inappropriate development
occurring. North Carolina legislation empowers cities, towns, counties to acquire property for public
purpose by gift, grant, devise, bequest, exchange, purchase, lease or eminent domain (See, e.g.,
N.C.G.S. Ch. 153A, At. 8; Ch. 1600A, Art. 11).
Taxation: The power to levy taxes and special assessments is an important tool delegated to
local governments by North Carolina law. Local governments can levy certain types of taxes and apply
the revenue to hazard mitigation measures as a component of its fiscal capability. It is important to note
here, however, that the power of taxation extends beyond merely the collection of revenue, and can
have a profound impact on the pattern of development in the community. Many communities set
preferential tax rates for areas which are unsuitable for development (e.g., agricultural land, wetlands),
and can be used to discourage development in hazardous areas.
Local units of government also have the authority to levy special assessments on property
owners for all or part of the costs of acquiring, constructing, reconstructing, extending or otherwise
building or improving beach erosion control or flood and hurricane protection works within a
designated area (N.C.G.S. 160A-238). This can serve to increase the cost of building in such areas,
thereby discouraging development.
Spending. The fourth major power that has been delegated from the North Carolina State
General Assembly to local governments is the power to make expenditures in the public interest.
Hazard mitigation principles should be made a routine part of all spending decisions made by the local
government, including annual budgets and capital improvement plans.

57
A capital program is a timetable by which a city indicates the timing and level of municipal
services it intends to provide over a specified duration. Capital programming, by itself, can be used as a
growth management technique, with a view to hazard mitigation. By tentatively committing itself to a
timetable for the provision of capital to extend municipal services, a community can control its growth
to some extent, especially where the surrounding area is such that the provision of on -site sewage
disposal and water supply are unusually expensive. In addition to formulating a timetable for the
provision of services, a local community can regulate the extension of and access to municipal services.
A capital improvement program that is coordinated with extension and access policies can
provide a significant degree of control over the location and timing of growth. These tools can also
influence the cost of growth. If the program is effective in directing growth away from hazardous areas,
it can reduce hazard -induced damage costs.

59
APPENDIX IV. MAPS AND CHARTS
This Appendix contains maps and charts that illustrate some of the pertinent data collected
during the formulation of the Nags Head Hazard Mitigation Plan. Because of the morphology of the
island on which Nags Head is located, maps portraying the entire Town are necessarily elongated, a
shape which is not conducive to illustration on standard 8X11 paper. The maps which appear in this
Appendix, therefore, are cross -sections of larger maps. Full-size maps, as well as other data derived
from the Geographic Information System (GIS) are available to the public in the Nags Head Planning
Department.

Sample Area:
Nags Head, NC
Zoning (labeled)
Flood (restricted use)
0 A
AE
UNDIES
® VE
X
w L
s
3000 0 3000 6000 Feet

3000 0 3000 6000 Feet
Sample Area:
Nags Head, NC
Hurricane Storm Surge
Category 1
- Category 3
MM Incipient Inlets
0 Zoning
N
W E
S

3000
SPD C
6000
Feet
3000
0
Sample Area:
Nags Head, NC
Zoning
C2: General Commercial District
�`. C3: Commercial Services District
C4: Village Commercial District
CR: Commecial Residential District
R1: Low Density Residential District
JI R2: Medium Density Residential District
JJ R3: High Density Residential District
SED-80: Special Environmental District
�7I SPD-20: Special Planned Development District
JI SPD-C: Special Planned Development /Community District
J N
W E
S

67
VULNERABILITY OF DEVELOPED PROPERTY IN NAGS HEAD
Value of Developed Property
(S)
%
Total Tax Value
677,563,019
Pre FIRM
206,205,699
30
Post FIRM
471,357,320
70
Vulnerability of Developed Property (S)
%
Category 1 Hurricane
400,639,079
59
Pre FIRM
138,470,259
20
Post FIRM
262,168,820
39
Category 3 Hurricane
568,944,769
83
Pre FIRM
195,883,609
29
Post FIRM
372,061,160
55
300-Foot Zone
290,527,689
42
Pre FIRM
99,250,659.
15
Post FIRM
191,277,030
28
Incipient Inlets
30,679,090
4.5
Pre FIRM
18,698,170
2.6
Post FIRM
11,980,920
1.6
VE Zone
236,887,019
34
Pre FIRM
84,949,999
12
Post FIRM
151,937,020
22
AE Zone
254,964,860
37
Pre FIRM
88,763,790
13
Post FIRM
166,201,070
25

68
VULNERABILITY OF VACANT PROPERTY IN NAGS HEAD
Vacant
% of Vacant
Total Acres
Acres
Acres
Total*
1026.50
100%
28%
Vulnerable Areas
Vacant
% of Vacant
% Total Acres
Acres
Acres
(3,666)
Category 1 Hurricane
487.74
48%
13.11%
Category 3 Hurricane
912.18
890/0
24.52%
300-Foot Zone
100.75
10%
2.71%
Incipient Inlets
28.85
3%
78%
VE
94.57
9%
2.54%
AE
704.38
69%
18.93%
*The numbers listed in each column do not add up to the total because the areas overlap; for example
the area vulnerable to a Category 1 Hurricane is also vulnerable to a Category 3 Hurricane and is shown
there as well.

REFERENCES
Brower, David J., et al. 1984. Carrying Capacity Analysis, Nags Heag North Carolina. Chapel Hill,
NC: Coastal Resources Collaborative, Ltd.
Brower, David J., William E. Collins, and Timothy Beatley. 1984. Hurricane Hazard Mitigation and
Post -Storm Reconstruction Plan for Nags Head, North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC: Coastal Resources
Collaborative, Ltd.
Brower, David J., Timothy Beatley, and David J. Blatt. 1987. Reducing Hurricane and Coastal
Hazards Through Growth Management. Chapel Hill, NC: Center for Urban and Regional Studies.
Bryant, Edward. 1991. Natural Hazards " New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Bush, David M., Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., and William J. Neal. 1996. Living by the Rules of the Sea.
Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Coch, Nicholas K. 1995. Geohazards. Natural and Human. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Committee on Natural Disasters, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National
Research Council. 1993. Wind and the Built Environment: U.S. Needs in Wind Engineering and
Hazard Mitigation. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Frazier, Kendrick. 1979. The Violent Face of Nature. New York, NY: William Morrow and Company,
Inc.
Friedman, Don G. 1974. Computer Simulation in Natural Hazard Assessment. Boulder, CO:
Institute for Behavioral Science, University of Colorado.
Griggs, Gary. B. And John A. Gilchrist. 1993. Geologic Hazards, Resources, and Environmental
Planning. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Lynch, L. 1983. "Potential Inlet Zones on the North Carolina Coast." School of Forestry and
Environmental Science, Duke University.
Lynch, Lisa L. and Stephen B. Benton. 1985. Potential Inlet Zones on the North Carolina Coast from
Virginia to Cape Hatteras. Unpublished report prepared for the North Carolina Department of Health,
Environment, and Natural Resources, Division of Coastal Management, Raleigh, NC.
Maybury, Robert H. 1986. The Violent Face of Nature: Severe Phenomena and Natural Disasters
Mt. Airy, MD: Lomond Publications, Inc.
National Weather Service - National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, National
Climatic Data Center.

70
Neumann, Charles J. et al. 1993 (4th rev.). Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-
1992. Asheville, NC: US Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Simpson, Robert and Herbert Reil. 1981. The Hurricane and Its Impact. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana
State University.
Smith, Keith. 1992. Environmental Hazards. Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster. New York, NY:
Routledge.