Water Quality Systems with Constructed Wetlands-1994-1995 (2)

EO
New Hanover County Department of Environmental Management
WATER QUALITY SYSTEMS WITH
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
An Environmental Education Program
1994 - 1995
THIS PROGRAM SPONSORED IN PART HY A CAMA GRANT FROM THE NORTH CAROLINA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES; DIVISION OF
COASTAL MANAGEMENT. OTHER SPONSORS INCLUDE GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY AND NELSON ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTING
SERVICES.

THIS PROGRAM SPONSORED IN PART BY A CAMA GRANT FROM THE NORTH CAROLINA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES, DIVISION OF
COASTAL MANAGEMENT. OTHERSPONSORSINCLUDE GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY AND NELSON ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTING SERVICES.
TEACHER PREPARATION PACKAGE
Environmental Education Program
New Hanover County Department of Environmental Management
Water Quality Systems
with Constructed Wetlands
I M M A ' I� 1
The New Hanover County Department.f!f vironment'g-I :Management is
pleased to offer this opportunity for environmen E #on to pu id chaol science
classes. This program will center on current and p `s? tewat pmcosses.jocated
r¢gram
at the New Hanover County Landfill on Hwy 421 Nor :<# x
=1ntigt€t's:p
is to provide teachers new educational tools that will`conible € Science
curriculum in New Hanover County Schools. Gradelevel fosrniddle
::..
school eighth grade• with other possibilities forow0r:°grade#le :;rtta►l. An
ultimate achiement from this€ pract isK be
protected thr-ough-�i-nnovatrcre tract eater treat �':� #;h�#ully
controlled and monitored as well as the benefits of natural wetlands.
The accompanying materials offer a background and history of the current
landfill and development of the various wastewater systems for treating landfill
leachate. This information will provide you support material including videos that will
prepare your class for a field trip to the landfill constructed wetland demonstration site
and lab. The support materials and the field trip should provide the basis for
continued classroom study afterwards in related areas.
During their field trip, students will participate in field observations and tests
of water samples taken at the constructed wetland demonstration plots. They will
record the results and have an opportunity to enter their field data into a computer
spreadsheet program. Other samples will be taken for microscopic observations in the
laboratory. Students will gain an understanding of how their field work and
observations will play an active role in determining a final design for the permanent
constructed wetland at the landfill site. Students will discover how decisions from
their field work and laboratory tests play an active roll in control of the wastewater
\ J processes to produce a quality effluent.

This program will initially involve the constructed wetland demonstration plots.
As the program is developed further, it will involve other wastewater treatment
processes and the surrounding natural areas of the landfill site. The natural areas
Oon the landfill site offer opportunities to study native flora and fauna.
Field Trio Guidelines
Students and teachers will go to the Hwy 421 North landfill site to begin their field
trip. They will meet with a field trip guide and continue to the constructed wetland
demonstration area. Students will divide into groups and begin their observations and
field tests using available test kits and portable measuring devices. Tests for dissolved
oxygen, pH, Nitrates -Nitrites, temperature, flow, and Ammonia will be recorded (see
Attachments A& B) for later evaluation and trending with computer spreadsheets.
Samples will be taken at areas designated on the Field Data Sheet. Field work at the
demo plots will be noted as follows:
• From test kits, one can observe colormetrically how these constituents
change as they are removed within the various wetland cell configurations.
• While samples are taken and measurements are made, explanations of what
the tests identify and their significance to process control and/or design will
be noted.(see glossary)' b
The impact of the waste products on th 61101..rlment shdidd emphasized
if left untreated (aquatic toxicity, eutropr€rreductiv pv;r quality
for drinking, recreation, etc.).
Duringthe time field observations are made' .oi s > i Y lo.�k for
O • k 3 .
..
would be es of insects resent presence of aNpall n in
types present, P >��1�::;::.v g
in
the cells, conditions of plants in each eels; eoihpa#r thlants
each. cell:.and.presence of:a�gae...Th,pse-�t�_m{.s ax�dd:� true
+:Y• ` Y. ♦n?.r ':�/ u./ f ?. :f. .{;ism i:::::. ... .........i •'}:::,'pri:;:ti
cell efficiencies and th '��/:abiliti, SA rem r :
.....n<3yp„_.•. �• wwx•::x•::,.;;. k..:•:...:!4:::a;.e....... "txa.:.:... :.: ::;•x::a::%:iiSi`.:..... .....:: .......
.. r:::•:rx:.`.P •-
• Students should be familiar with the species of wetland plants in each plot
and be able to identify these plants (i.e., cattails, bulrush). [Refer to Packet
A, for the planting diagram and plant species list located in the paper
"Design of A Constructed Wetland System for Leachate Treatment ...... on
pages 3-17 & 3-18.1
Student groups will be instructed by a work plan on the other wastewater processes
on site. The 4.0 MG lagoon is used for pretreatment of the leachate where some
organic and inorganic constituents are removed. Secondary treatment and the final
stage before discharge is the biological system established in the 75,000 gallon
activated sludge tank. Various types of microscopic organisms exist in this system. A
permanent constructed wetland will work with this mechanical system for "polishing"
the final effluent or replace it altogether as the secondary system. The students should
gain a perspective of how treatment systems work and the ability of mechanical and
natural processes for wastewater treatment working together, or as separate units, to
remove pollutants. Before leaving the demonstration area several samples will be
taken for microscope observations.
2

♦ This first phase of the field trip should take from 1-11/z hours. Travel time back
o to the administration building (lab) is 10 - 15 minutes.
♦ The second phase of the field trip at the WASTEC administrative building
(temporary until lab completed at landfill) consists of a brief demonstration of
wetland plants. A video microscopic will be used to view slides and identify
specific microorganisms from samples or prepared slides. A computer will be
used to enter field data. (see Attachments C & D). Time allowance for the
microscope and computer lab should be 11/2 hours.
Plant Demonstration
The demonstration will involve wetland plants in a glass enclosure to view the plant
roots and soil layers. The soil layers are indicators of the microorgranism activities.
Lighter soil areas are indicators of activity of aerobic microorganisms. The darker soil
layers are indicators of anaerobic microorganisms or little or no oxygen. A test of the
oxygen that exists around the plant roots (therefore supporting the aerobic
microorganisms) is with the use of a methylene blue gel compound. The methylene
blue will change colors when it is exposed to ax@a� pf oxygen. '
Microscopic Observations
Microscope observations will consist of viewing sliderysa,..Y,ron the
constructed wetlands demonstration plots. Other prepared sHd 0 ' lable for
comparisons such as stained slides from the wetlandsactivaerr agoon
..............:.,.... :.:.:
or purchased slides. A video camera and #no i r" are XV-1, ` coscopic
observations ciA be easily seen: J.-I O'E"-, fi 9w I.. video
printer for ideiTtifi-cation and EA-6 �`i tion -purp e : L e tr "s 'area'
• comparisons of microorganisms in the different cells
• comparing microorganisms between the cells, lagoon, and activated sludge
• observing plant cells in healthy plants, and plants showing decomposition
Items to be noted will be:
• The number and types of microorganisms that occur around the plant
roots of the wetland plants in comparison to organisms that exist in the
mechanical activated sludge system.
• Microorganisms in the activated sludge receive oxygen from a blower,
whereas microorganisms occurring at the plant roots in the wetland cells
receive oxygen that is transferred to the roots through the plants. Plant
transfer is the primary source of oxygen in the subsurface wetland plots.
• The surface systems receive oxygen also from wind action on the water
surface introducing oxygen for use by the microorganisms. Part of the
study is to determine if microorganisms or plants are the primary sources
for removal of pollutants.
K

• Recognition of types of microorganisms will be related to the different
plots relative to the performance of these plots. Other comparisons of
microorganisms will be made between surface and subsurface plots, and
treated and untreated leachate. There may also be differences between
microorganisms that are growing in the different substrates in the plots
such as sand, gravel, or crushed concrete.
Computer Data Entry
Data that was recorded at the wetland demonstration plots will be entered into the
computer database (Microsoft Excel 5.0). Trend charts from the data will establish
removal efficiencies within each cell and comparisons between groups of cells.
Students can see the differences between the cells and make preliminary evaluations
on their own. Field data recorded from other schools can be made available by disk or
by hard copy so each school and perspective classes can maintain a year round record
of how the cells are operating, particularly related to seasonal variations, plant growth,
plant species, etc..
Field Trip Summary and Objectives
Participating students in this field trip will gain v nop .ecl� astewater
treatment, environmental biology, and the need to mam t s ari ,water
quality initiatives and goals. Participants should be abie to ell i €: pment
an understanding of the importance :of proteding-the- en i t r Orly our
estuaries. n e ..cuz's�Q.::€€":<a `d its
coastal waters and .. ts... {:.: h t... g.»th#.:..:`:»...:......:>........ <4•:..•:
articipants will'h�►.:v.,e�>be�r introdicd``eeas that
.. ... m mC;xr;::;..:,M.•.•,;,o:.•::+s........ :. c.,:w.,..,.....,.::r..:.:.:%:......::k:<rv:?:'6k:<ti:r.•.'•;':::;,•:;:.:;::••v«x•:.•::.:c<•r .
preparation,
::<:
provide more e�"ficient treatment of wastewater"constituents. Two exanipies at the
landfill facility are:
The use of Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMS) to provide enhanced
ammonia removal in the activated sludge process
The use of natural plants in a constructed wetland to remove wastewater toxins.
Studies during the field trip will show how plants and microorganisms function
to affect the quality of water effluent from these systems.
Participants will gain an understanding of the importance of using natural processes
for wastewater treatment and the potential benefit of incorporating this method of
treatment. Their work andinterpretations will help to further develop the education
program in addition to providing details for a final constructed wetland design.
A goal of the program is to provide a realistic concept of ways to protect the
environment through innovative technologies and to encourage young people to enter
Ointo environmental careers.
4

ODescriAtion and Summary of Package Inserts
Several modules of information are available in this package. The intention of this
information is to provide new processes for meeting current and future wastewater
regulations and to help keep our coastal waters clean. Other types of information
should provide you current guidelines in wastewater treatment and constructed
wetlands. All of this information might be used at some time with your current science
curriculum. It is primarily there to help you prepare students for the field trip to the
county landfill constructed wetlands demonstration project and to answer students'
questions. Several videos are available from the Water Environment Federation and
brochures that will give a general overview of various aspects of water quality and
wastewater treatment. Students need to develop an understanding of "the big picture"
so they will fully realize the importance of the field work they will be participating in.
These videos will be available at a convenient time for classes planning a field trip.
One additional video is available on constructed wetlands. This is a "grassroots" tape
with good general information on constructed wetlands. A final video is a brief
multimedia video that should be viewed prior to taking a field trip to the wetland.
Information packets are included as follows:. f:.._•_ : .
• Information Packet A - Landfill b. .; #1VIA Prop Q � nst'ucted
>:::::.::.::;::...;.: x >. r
Wetland Project��'` # Q':
• Information Packet B -General informatM-ds,
CWWT News } :
>
• Information Packet C • Basic. Biolog• y.( ste:. E uthne
> ' z > :,'! i �».a,�'�.,:sib::�:,Y•.'•no'�•,'•i:,�2•"}k'r"'• �;2 ;
for CWWT lectures, Nit'agen Cye._.3. .: >;:::>::>>::<:<:<:» :::.::<;<:::>;
•.:L-..} ...,ij..,�-..w..w,'�;k}'?+:i:'isdfi{.}u.'o'>ii::it•`.;}:>:;;:iiai' ov'�,J
• InfYirmation Packe.Dnfartioineation
..wa ..,,�......_.. ••b^:J�>:•: t:Eti:::.t';�t::'•.:.^•.oen,..�,... ' ...:>,.+'�c''3:...,iv.•ic<ia2't;8:4»fax:;u&�ioi:?::o,.•,.,•::� .:.>
lirocbiures and videos
• Video Titles from the Water Environment Federation:
Nature's Way Video, Clean Water for Toddy: What is Wastewater
Treatment and Careers in Water Quality
• Video Title on Constructed Wetlands from Wolverton
Environmental Services: Artificial Marshlands Treatment Systems
• Multimedia Video - A mixture of computer graphics, sounds and video
to introduce the New Hanover County demo wetlands project and the
educational tools that are available through these field trips.
Transnortation and Directions
Transportation could be funded by school PTAs. Principals of other schools have a
budget for this type of program.
The New Hanover County Landfill is located on Hwy 421 North. From downtown
Wilmington, proceed on Third Street North and cross the Isabelle Stellings Holmes

Bridge over the Northeast Cape Fear River. At the intersection take Hwy 421 North
O 5.2 miles to the county landfill. The landfill will be the third right after you pass Cape
Industries (note the white sign New Hanover County - Solid Waste Disposal
Site). Your field trip guide will meet you at the entrance. Note: From the Hwy 421
Intersection and the Isabelle Stellings Holmes Bridge, you will pass by the county
Waste -to -Energy facility after 1.9 miles marked by a sign "WASTEC". WASTEC is
located north of the Arcadian Fertilizer Plant immediately past the railroad tracks and
on the right. You will come back to this facility (administration building) for your
microscope and computer lab.
Safety
• Student groups should pay careful attention to the field trip guides, which will
consist of county personnel, college student intems, or volunteers.
• Groups should stay in the area of observations and tests and not wander.
• Lab test equipment should be handled with care.
• Gloves should be wom before taking samples to keep from coming in direct
contact with the wastewater. When samM. is complete, alIvays wash the
gloves thoroughly before removing them. moving tle` ores, wash your
hands thoroughly, using a disinfectant-t3' a 1 A,
Handle all chemicals and reagents with carve=x,..nd beapi "ar with
Oprecautions or wamings on labels.
-.... ry ...... ..........._.......5... {;:. •.T •':':) ?? vk•}'a.•:? �:: ir:�:::'::••.a :ti : t}
For more information. .... .. • ,
t <Sg...__,...;q....,q>:•:e::,.:.ya<::;:,:;:;..:.xr,•;<:<y,•;a:•;::�taa .d�
M- ....«.... ; ,,:a i f � 4\.ii�;:;:K'.:j<!`:::5:2::4i._:�{:;?i.'•:;`.;::.i:;iri; i+:::t:'T.:.•:~,'Jv
M'- j
Contact the Mw Hanover C.ou� � en of sr� � at
phone [phone] or fax [phone]: a A
0 6

CONSTRUCTED WETLAND AND WASTEWATER GLOSSARY
O Activated sludge - Sludge articles produced in raw or settled wastewater b the growth
g g P P Y
of organisms in aeration tanks in the presence of dissolved oxygen. The term "activated"
comes from the fact that the particles are teeming with bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.
Activated sludge is different from primary sludge in that the sludge particles contain
many living organisms which can feed on the incoming wastewater.
Aerobic - Conditions in constructed wetlands or other that are in the presence of "free" or
dissolved oxygen. Some microorganisms can only live in these conditions and perform
well in these conditions to change pollutants into less harmful constituents.
Aerobic Bacteria - Bacteria which will live and reproduce only in an environment
containing oxygen which is available for their respiration (breathing) namely atmospheric
oxygen or oxygen dissolved in water. Oxygen combined chemically, such as in water
molecules (H2O, cannot be used for respiration by aerobic bacteria).
Ambient temperature - Measurement of the temperature of the prevailing dynamic
environmental conditions in a given area. Measurement may be made by using a
Temperature electrode and allowing the display or meter to stabilize and remain constant
before recording a reading.
Anaerobic - Conditions in constructed wetlands or other that are NOT present in the
aquatic environment~ Certain species of microorganisms can live without oxygen and are
important in completing the removal of pollutants in the water.
O Anaerobic Bacteria - Bacteria that live and reproduce in an environment containing no
"free" or dissolved oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria obtain their oxygen supply by breaking
down chemical compounds which contain oxygen, such as sulfate ( SO4 ).
Biomass - A mass or clump of living organisms feeding on the wastes in wastewater,
dead organisms and other debris. This mass may be formed for, or function as
protection against predators and storage of food supplies.
Constructed Wetland - Wet areas created from non wetland sites for the sole purpose of
wastewater or storm water treatment. These areas are not considered waters of the U.S.
(normally). Constructed wetlands are treatment systems subject to monitoring and
treatment whose discharges must meet NPDES permit effluent standards (EPA).
Created Wetland - Areas intentionally developed from non wetland sites to produce or
replace natural habitat. These wetlands often are the result of mitigation projects and are
waters of the U.S. (normally). Created wetlands are planned, designed, constructed and
monitored. In addition, their location must have maximum benefit to the environment and
protected in perpetuity (EPA).
Denitrification - The anaerobic biological reduction of nitrate nitrogen to nitrogen gas.
Detritus - The heavy, coarse mixture of grit and organic material carried by wastewater.
In constructed wetlands, detritus may be formed from dead or dying plants caused by
natural situations or seasonal changes. Microscopic examination of this material usually
reveals numerous organisms living on the material.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) - Molecular oxygen dissolved in water or wastewater. DO
O measurements may be made with a portable DO meter. Insert the electrode into the water
several centimeters until it stabilizes. Record the reading.

L�
Eutrophication - Nutrient enrichment of a lake or other water body, typically
characterized by increased growth of planktonic algae and rooted plants. It can be
accelerated by wastewater discharges and polluted runoff. Nutrients such as nitrogen
compounds and phosphorus are the main contributors to nutrient enrichment.
Evapotranspiration - The total water removed from an area by transpiration (plants) and
by evaporation from soil, snow, and water surfaces.
Leachate - Commonly referred to as "landfill leachate" and is rainwater that trickles
through the trash in a landfill in addition to water already retained by the trash. The water
(leachate) is collected in wet wells and transferred to a lagoon or other facility for
treatment.
Flow Rate - The rate that water flows through the wetland cells and measured in gallons
per minute(gpm) or gallons per day(gpd). The flow may be recorded by noting the. time
and reading on the cell flow meter totalizer or reading from a chart paper.
Free Water Surface (FWS) constructed wetland. Water level is above the soil or gravel bed
with plant rooted in the bottom. Water flow is mainly above the bottom soil.
Functions - The physical, chemical, and biological process or attributes of a wetland.
Grab Sample - A single sample of wastewater taken at neither a set time nor flow.
Hydrophytes (also known as hydrophytic or wetland plants) - These plants have
developed specialized physical structures, aerenchyma, loosely similar to bundles of
O drinking straws, to transport atmospheric gases including oxygen through leaves and
stems down to the roots to provide oxygen for respiration. Aerenchyma also transport
respiratory by-products and other gases generated in the substrate back up the roots,
stem, and leaves for release to the atmosphere, reducing potentially toxic accumulations
in the region of growing roots. Because of these specialized structures, wetland plants are
able to survive and grow in habitats with hostile root -growing conditions that would kill
other plants. Consequently, wetland plants are often the best indicator of a wetlands
system even though many wetlands plants can grow in drier environments if competition
with terrestrial plants is limited. (Note that roots of normal, terrestrial plants obtain
oxygen for respiration from gases within soil pore spaces and if those spaces are filled with
water lacking oxygen, their roots die and the plant dies).
Microorganisms - Very small organisms that can be seen only through a microscope. Some
microorganisms use the wastes in wastewater for food and thus remove or alter much of
the undesirable matter.
Nitrification - The oxidation of ammonia nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen in wastewater and
constructed wetlands by biological or chemical reactions. (see nitrogen cycle)
Nitrogen(N) - An essential nutrient that is often present in wastewater as ammonia,
nitrate, nitrite, and organic nitrogen. The concentrations of each form and the sum (total
nitrogen) are expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L) elemental nitrogen. Measurements
of ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite will be recorded in the field trip using Hach test kits for
ammonia and nitrate -nitrite test strips for the other.
O Nitrifying Bacteria - Bacteria that change the ammonia and organic nitrogen in
wastewater into oxidized nitrogen (usually nitrate).

NPDES - National Pollution Discharge Elimination System. This system is regulated by
state and federal guidelines for effluent discharge to US surface waters.
pH - An expression of the intensity of the basic or acid condition of a liquid. The pH may
range from 0 -14 where 0 is the most acid,14 most basic, and 7 is neutral. Natural waters
usually have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5. Constructed wetlands operate well in this range
also. The pH will often determine the types of microorganisms that will predominate in
a system.
Pollution - Any change in the natural state of water which interferes with its beneficial
reuse or causes failure to meet water -quality requirements.
Secondary treatment - A level of treatment that produces secondary effluent. At the
landfill, the lagoon acts as primary or pretreatment and the -activated sludge plant is the
secondary treatment before discharge. The constructed wetlands will be tested for use as
secondary treatment, that would effectively replace the activated sludge plant if the
constructed wetlands were effective as secondary treatment during the pilot test.
Subsurface ( Vegetated Submerged Bed)[VSB] Constructed Wetland - Water level is in
the soil or gravel bed media with plant roots extending to the bottom of the bed., Water
flow is mainly through the media.
Surface (Free Water Surface)[FWS] Constructed Wetland - Water level is above the soil
or gravel bed with plants rooted in the bottom. Water flow is mainly above the bottom
soil.
Thermal Stratification - The formation of layers of different temperatures in bodies of
water.
Totalizer - A device that continuously sums or adds the flow in gallons (gal) or million
Ogallons (MG) or some other unit of measurement.
Toxicity - A condition which may exist in wastes and will inhibit or destroy the growth
or function of certain organisms.
Temperature - The thermal state of a substance with respect to its ability to transmit heat
to its environment. To measure the water temperature in the wetland cells, put the
electrode several centimeters into the water and wait to stabilize before taking a reading.
Tertiary Treatment - The treatment of wastewater beyond the secondary or biological
stage. This term normally implies the removal of nutrients, such as phosphorus and
nitrogen, and a high percentage of suspended solids. (Another term is advanced waste
treatment) Some of the wetland demonstration plots will be tested for use as tertiary
treatment systems.
Wetland - Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water
table is usually at or near the surface, or the land is covered by shallow water. Wetlands
must contain the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports
predominantly hydrophytes; (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil,
and (3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water
at some time during the growing season of each year.
Wetland Plants (see hydrophytes) - Plants capable of growing in an environment that is
periodically but continuously inundated for more than 5 days during the growing season.
Wetland Plant Types - Major plant species that are used in all constructed wetlands are
Phragmites (Reed), Typha (Cattail), Scirpus (Bulrush), Juncus (Rush), and Carex (Sedge).
O[See CWWT NEWS, Winter 1993 No. 2, page 4 & page 51ocated in Packet B] Some of these
species will be used in the demonstration plots. (See Information Packet A for details in
the "Design of a Constructed Wetland System for Leachate Treatment at the New Hanover
County Landfill, North Carolina")

Effects on Microorganisms - It should be noted that these microscopic organisms are
sensitive to pH, temperature, and DO. They are sensitive in that certain species will
predominate under certain conditions of pH, temperature, and DO. Each species play an
n important role in removing pollutants. Extremes in any of the three items will often kill
`-/ the microorganisms, but once conditions are stabilized, they will come back. At certain
tunes, there are toxic substances that will completely remove the biological organisms and
treatment of the wastewater will stop. Solutions are to identify the toxic substance and
stop it at the source or provide additional methods of treatment to compensate for the
substance. Only then will the beneficial microorganisms come back and survive to begin
to treat the wastewater again.
Effects of Nitrogen compounds on the receiving waters - Nitrogen compounds released
into rivers and lakes can create abundant plant growth. This plant growth usually has a
short life span with constant regeneration as long as the source of nitrogen is present.
Microorganisms multiply and consequently use more and more oxygen as they feed on the
dead plant materials, thus further reducing the oxygen content in the water. Fish kills
develop when the oxygen in the water falls below certain levels. This process is called
eutrophication A major consideration of using constructed wetlands for tertiary treatment
is to help remove most of the nitrates from the wastewater before discharge to the river
(See nitrogen cycle).
Effects of Ammonia - Ammonia can be toxic to microorganisms and fish in low
concentrations. Ammonia is also part of the nitrogen cycle and can be reduced to Nitrate
by nitrifying bacteria.
Ee

DATA.XLS
New Hanover County Pilot Wetlands Proiect
School: Class:
�J Name(s): Date Time
Weather sunny cloudy rainy windy thunderstorms Temp.
Sample location: 2 cell 3 call North South Middle
In cell location: Influent Effluent
Circle Sample Location on Drawing
N �•W d' E
S i
Tvoe of Samole(s) Collected:
PH DO Temp. NH3 NO2 NO3 Flow Initials
#9
#3
#4
Notes:

IINFLUENT FEED TANKS
SEE DETAIL. FIGURE 4
NOT TO SCALE
Parr,
BUCJQ,EI',
L
(ATTACHMENT B)
WETLAND INFLUENT STRUCTURE
SEE DETAILS. FIGURE 5
(TYPICAL 5 PLACES)
TOP of eaz►i — —
—
SFW #2
— (RAW) —
;
TOP OF BERM
Fm
SFW $1
— (TREATED)
'
TOP of BERM
ORGANIC MATTER FEED SYSTEM
SEE DETAIL. FIGURE 10
(TYPICAL 3 PLACES)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
TOP OF BERM
SSFW #3
(RAW; BRICK)
i
P OFS M ,
.1
SSFW f2
(RAW; GRAVEL)
SSFW1
(TREATED; GRAVEL)
SURFACE FLOW WETLAND OUTFALL SUBSURFACE FLOW WETLAND OUTFALL,
SEE DETAIL. FIGURE
6 E I0 3 FIGURE 8
(TYPICAL 2 PLACES
WETLAND TRMENT CELL & PIPING PLAN
RE 3

NH3DEMO5.XL5
101
New Hanover County Constructed Wetlands 1994
Influent and Effluent Data
Influent Data
Date
SFW#1
SFW#2
SSFW#1
SSFW#2
SSFW#3
2/15/94
92.7
1.55
74.2
74.2
1.1
2/22/94
114
14.5
85.7
85.7
1.02
3/9/94
101
2.29
69.3
69.3
2.01
3/15/94
150
1.61
60.1
60.1
1.02
4/5/94
101
9.22
57.9
57.9
2.01
4112/94
137
2.02
56.1
56.1
0.72
.5/3/94
156
3.42
61.3
61.3
0.67
5/10/94
165
11.7
43.9
43.9
1.03
617194
147
1.81
47.2
47.2
0.85
6/14/94
133
2.21
53.5
53.5
1.03
7/6/94
147
1.44
26.1
26.1
0.39
7/12/94
84.1
25.2
32.8
32.8
1.08
8/2/94.
89.4
2.43
44.3
44.3
1.01
8/10/94
78.1
4.13
46.5
46.5
0.97
Effluent Data
SSFW#1
SSFW#2
SSFW#3
2/15/94
42.1
31.9
0.42
2/22/94
25.1
26.1
0.72
3/9/94
22.8
23.6
0.54
3/15/94
28.6
22.7
0.33
4/5/94
27.8
29.5
0.43
4/12/94
30.1
23.1
0.56
513/94
21.6
30.2
0.31
5/10/94
18.9
21
0.29
6/7/94
22.9
27.1
0.29
6/14/94
27.2
33.3
0.44
7/6/94
33.2
29.4
0.39
7/12/94
21.3
26.1
0.44
8/2/94
20.6
27.6
0.53
8/10/94
25.4
26.6
0.31
(ATTACHMENT C)

VO
New Hanover Co. Constructed Wetlands Influent NH3
180
160
140
120
100
mg/L 80
60
40
20
0
2/1 5 2115 3/9 3/15 4/5 4/12 5/3 5/10 6/7 6/1 4 7/6 7/1 2 8/2 8/10
Sample Date
—�— SFW#1 SFW#2 SSFW#1 SSFW#2 —}-- SSFW#3
New Hanover Co. Constructed Wetlands Effluent NH3
160
140
120
100
mg/L 80
60
40
20
0
2115 2/15 3/9 3/15 4/5 4/12 5/3 5/10 6/7 6/1 4 7/8 7/1 2 8/2 8/10
Sample Date
--�-- SSFW#1 0 SSFW#2 —+-- SSFW#3
(ATTACHMENT D)

CO
Z
Q
J
Z
O
W
J
0 0 0

WATER QUALITY SYSTEMS
WITH CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
LESSON PLAN
I. SYNOPSIS
This exercise has numerous objectives: (1) Learn the
affects of pollutants on microorganisms; (2) Experience
hands-on use of field and laboratory equipment in a practical
application of sampling techniques and data gathering; (3)
Compare the effectiveness of surface flow verses subsurface
flow wetlands in the removal of contaminants from wastewater;
(4) Identify plants and microorganisms which assist in the
removal of contaminants.
Upon completion of the exercise, the student should
associate processes of contaminant reduction in a
"constructed" wetland with processes occurring in naturally
occurring wetlands and the need to protect these natural
habitats.
II. SUGGESTED TIME FOR FIELD TRIPS
2 hours in the field at the wetland.
2 hours in the laboratory.
III. TEACHING MATERIALS
Field Equipment
- Thermometer
- pH Meter
- DO Meter
- Colorimetric Test Kits
Nitrate -Nitrite, Iron,
and Ammonia.
Sampling Equipment
- 1 liter plastic beakers
- Metal Spoons
- Wooden tongue depressors
- Grease pencils or labels
- Trays for sorting
- Blunt forceps
- 12-inch ruler
(HACH) for
Alkalinity
Lab Equipment
- Personal computer with spreadsheet
- Lotus 1,2,3 or Microsoft Excel 5.0
0

Video Microscope
o - Computer Floppy Disk
- Manuals for identifying aquatic macro -
invertebrates, microorganisms, and aquatic
or wetland plants
IV. SUGGESTED ADVANCE PREPARATION
- Review Lab Safety
- Operation of field lab equipment pH, DO,
Thermometer
- Review colorimetric test for Nitrates -
Nitrites, Iron, Alkalinity, Ammonia
- Effects of pH, Ammonia, and other pollutants
on microorganisms.
- Use and care of a microscope
- Preparation of slides for microscope viewing
- Identification of microorganisms
- Sampling techniques
- Nitrogen cycle
V. INTRODUCTION
The discharge of impurities into bodies of water may
cause a detriment to the quality of that water. Definitions
of pollution include any interference with the beneficial use
of the water or a failure to'meet certain established water
quality standards. Present treatment technologies exist which
minimize the effects of discharges into the receiving waters.
However, as additional competition for use of water for
drinking, recreational, and discharge purposes increases,
higher quality effluent from treatment facilities will become
necessary. Low cost and effective mechanisms to improve water
quality may be available by looking to natural processes and
understanding their functions. The possibility of utilizing
"constructed" wetlands to improve treatment processes while
providing a new habitat for wildlife is the driving force
behind the constructed wetland demonstration project.
There are many types of wastes which pollute our waters;
wastewater discharges, stormwater run-off, industrial
discharges, and non -point sources such as agricultural.run-
off.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)
ONatural elements and organisms are often used to
determine the extent of pollution in a body of water. One
element in particular, oxygen, is necessary to sustain most
aquatic life. Most surface water contains less than 0.001%
Dissolved Oxygen (10 milligrams of oxygen per liter of water,
or 10 mg/L). Because oxygen is abundant in natural waters,
many aquatic organisms are very sensitive to the lack of it.
When oxidizable wastes are introduced into the water, bacteria
begin to feed on the waste and decompose_ or break down complex
waste into simple compounds. The bacteria also uses available
dissolved oxygen from the water and are called Aerobic
Bacteria. As more organic waste is added, the bacteria
reproduces rapidly, depleting the oxygen supply possibly to
the point to use up the supply of oxygen quicker than it can
be replenished by natural diffusion from the atmosphere. The
depletion of oxygen causes "fish kills" and destroys most
other living things in the body of water.
In order to determine the availability of dissolved
oxygen, the student will measure and record dissolved oxygen
levels throughout the wetland systems using a membrane
electrode.
Other indicators are also used to determine the health
of a surface water. Two such indicators which will be
monitored in the demonstration wetlands plots by the students
are temperature and pH, or concentration of the hydrogen ion.
Temperature effects a number of processes including
feeding, growth, reproduction, and respiration. In wastewater
treatment, accurate temperature measurements are helpful in
evaluating process performance because temperature is one of
the most important factors affecting microbial growth.
Generally stated, the rate of microbial growth doubles for
every 10° C increase in temperature within -the specific
temperature range of the microbe. Thermometers are calibrated
for either total immersion or partial immersion. A
thermometer calibrated for total immersion must be completely
immersed in the wastewater sample to give a correct reading,
while a partial -immersion thermometer must be immersed in the
sample to the depth of the etched circle around the stem for
a correct reading.
If a fahrenheit thermometer is used, the reading may be
converted to Centigrade by the following formula:
°c= 5 (°F-32 )
9
(3)

The student will observe the effects of temperature on
O the microorganisms by trending efficiency of containment
removal (primarily ammonia) through seasonal variations.
(Trends from previous data will be provided by the field trip
instructor).
K
PRECAUTIONARY PROCEDURES
When obtaining the temperature of a sample, the following
procedures should be followed:
1) To attain truly representative temperature
measurement, it is necessary either to take the
temperature reading at the point of sampling or
immediately following sample collection. A large
sample volume should be used to avoid a temperature
change during the measurement.
2) The accuracy of the thermometer used should be
occasionally verified against a precision
thermometer certified by the National Bureau of
Standards (NBS).
3) The thermometer should be left in the sample while
it is read.
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION (pH)
Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) is the measurement of
acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The intensity of acidity
or alkalinity is numerically expressed by its pH. A pH value
of 7.0 is neutral, while values 7 to 14 are alkaline and
values 0 to 7 are acid. pH can be measured colorimetrically
or electrometically. The"electrometric method (pH meter) is
preferred in all applications because it is not as subject to
interference by color, tubidity, colloidal matter, various
oxidants and reductants as is the less expensive colorimetric
method.
The pH measurements are valuable in process control
because pH is one of the environmental factors that affect the
activity and health of microorganisms.
Sudden changes in pH are detrimental to biological
processes. Generally, the pH of the secondary effluent will
be close to 7. A pH drop may be noticeable in a biological
process achieving nitrification because alkalinity is
destroyed and carbon dioxide is produced during the
nitrification process.

PRECAUTIONARY PROCEDURES
0 When performing the pH test, the following procedures
should be followed:
1) Grab samples should be used for the pH measurement. The
pH test should be performed on the samples immediately
following collection before the temperature or dissolved
gas content can change significantly. Do not heat or
stir the pH sample as a change in temperature or
dissolved gas content will affect -.the pH value.
2) Do not contaminate the buffer by pouring the used buffer
solution back into the buffer container.
3) Calibrate the pH meter with a buffer solution of
approximately the same temperature and pH as the sample
to be tested. Adjust the pH meter's tempebature
compensator for each pH measurement.
4) Avoid fouling the electrodes with oil or grease.
5) Erratic results or drifting should prompt an
investigation of the electrode.
VI. PROCEDURE IN THE FIELD
This exercise will be performed in two components: field
sampling and instrument measurements, and; laboratory
microscopic examination and data entry.
FIELD SAMPLING
Upon arrival at the wetland plots, the class will be
divided into groups. A suggested class size is no more than
thirty (30) students which allows six (6) groups of five (5)
students each.
Each group will be given an assignment of chemical or
instrument tests, measurements, or biological or water sample
collection. The group will be responsible for monitoring
influent and effluent of each of the five cells for their
specific assignment as follows:
(1) Group 1 - Field Observations and Sample Collections
Observe weather conditions noting temperature, wind
velocity and direction, sky conditions, time and date, and any
other unusual conditions. Record observations on the data
form.
Q (5,

Water, sediment, and vegetative sample containers should
be labeled according to type and location of sample. Sample
locations will be predetermined by the field instructor.
(2) Group 2 - Temperature and pH
Follow the directions for use of the Corning Digital
portable pH meter. Progress through the sampling stations
monitoring temperature and pH. Samples should be obtained at
each location in the container provided. The sample container
should be triple rinsed with sample, .discarding the rinse
water back into the wetland. Fill the container to a depth of
3 to 4 inches. The probe should be submerged two inches below
the sample surface allowing sufficient time for the instrument
to stabilize. Upon stabilization record the temperature.
Press the pH button on the instrument and allow stabilization.
Record the pH on the data form.
Rinse the probe generously with distilled water before
proceding to the next station.
(3) Group 3 - Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Follow the directions for use of the Cole-Parmer
Dissolved Oxygen Field Meter. Progress through the sampling
stations monitoring dissolved oxygen. Samples should be
O obtained at each predetermined station in the container
provided. Triple rinse the sample container with sample
water, discarding the rinse water back into the wetland. Fill
the container to a depth of 3 to 4 inches. Submerge the probe
two (2) inches below the sample surface allowing sufficient
time for the instrument to stabilize. Record the DO reading
on the data form. Rinse the probe generously with distilled
water before proceeding to the next station.
(4) Group 4 - Nitrate/Nitrite
Follow the directions on the Hach Nitrate/Nitrite field
sample kit. Progress through the sampling stations monitoring
Nitrate/Nitrite. Samples should be obtained at each pre-
determined station in the container provided with the test
kit. Triple rinse the sample container with sample water,
discarding the rinse water back into the wetland. Fill the
test kit vial to the mark with sample and add the contents of
the packet from the test kit. Mix the contents according to
directions. Compare the sample to the color disc and record
the result on the data form.
Rinse the sample vial generously with distilled water
discarding the rinsate into the bucket provided. Proceed to
the next station.
(6)

(5) Group 5 - Ammonia
OFollow the directions on the Hach Ammonia Field Sample
Kit. Progress through the sampling stations monitoring
ammonia. Samples should be obtained at each predetermined
station in the container provided with the test kit. Triple
rinse the sample container with sample water, discarding the
rinse water back into the wetland. Fill the test kit vial to
the mark with sample and add the reagent from the test kit as
instructed. Mix the contents according to directions.
Compare the sample to the color disc and- record the results on
the data form.
Rinse the sample vial generously with distilled water
discarding the rinsate into the bucket provided. Proceed to
the next station.
(6) Group 6 - Acid Mine Drainage
Follow the directions on the Hach Acid Mine Drainage
Field Sample Kit. Progress through the sampling stations
monitoring Acidity, Alkalinity and Iron. Samples should be
obtained at each predetermined station in the container
provided with the test kit. Triple rinse the sample container
with sample water, discarding the rinse water back into the
wetland. Fill the test kit vial to the mark with sample and
O add the reagent from the test kit as instructed. Mix the
contents according to directions. Compare the sample to the
color disc and record the results on the data form.
Rinse the sample vial generously with distilled water
discarding the rinsate into the bucket provided. Proceed to
the next station.
VII. PROCEDURE IN THE LABORATORY
The second phase of the field trip will be conducted in
the laboratory. Student groups 1, 2 and 3 will proceed to the
video microscope to view slides of samples obtained from the
field exercise. Wet drop slides may be prepared from the
samples, or previously prepared stained slides of
microorganisms may be used. Students will be instructed to
identify the organisms as* ameoboids, flagellates, free
swimming ciliates, stalked ciliates, rotifers, or worms. Once
the organisms are identified into groups, the students will be
instructed to identify the predominant group from each slide
and associate the predominant group with its location in the
wetland system. The information will be recorded on the Work
Sheet for Microscopic Examination.

Student work groups 4, 5 and 6 will proceed to the
computer work station. Data collected from the field exercise
will be entered into the computer spread sheet and graphed for
each parameter monitored on each wetland cell to determine
trends. Once completed, the two groups will change work
locations.
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U61
VIII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Which of the wetland plots provided the most reduction in
ammonia?
2. Was the plot which provided the most overall contaminant
reduction a surface flow wetland or subsurface flow
wetland?
3. Did you observe a difference in the wetland plots
receiving lagoon wastewater compared to the plots
receiving effluent from the activated sludge treatment
plant? If so, what were your observations?
4. What was the predominant microbiological group? Where
were they found? Why do you think they were found at
that location?
5. Do you think temperature and pH will affect the wetland's
plants? The microorganisms? What affects would you
expect to observe?
6. How is dissolved oxygen (DO) used to monitor the health
of a body of water?
7. What effects do untreated wastewaters have on receiving
streams?
8. Why are chemical tests for pollution sometimes not as
reliable as biological assessments?
9. How did dissolved oxygen vary across the plots? Which
plot had the most DO? Which had the least DO?
10. How is dissolved oxygen added to wetland plots? River
water? Ocean water?
11. In general what is pollution?
12. What pollutants would you expect to find in landfill
leachate?
13. What is leachate?
14. How do you carry a microscope?
15. Identify the parts of a microscope?
16. What are the procedures used in microscopic viewing -of a
slide?
i9i

17.
What are Aerobic Bacteria? Anaerobic Bacteria?
18.
Describe the Nitrogen Cycle.
19.
What is Hydrogen Ion concentration? Why is it important
to monitor pH?
20.
How does temperature affect biological systems?
21.
Which plot showed the most abundant plant growth?
22.
Which plant type appeared to be the most abundant?
23.
Which wetland type (surface or subsurface) had the
most abundant plot growth?
24.
Explain why this wetland type had the most abundant plant
growth. (nutrients, substrates)
25.
Were there any dead spots in the plots?
26.
Which plots?
27.
Explain why these dead spots exist.
Ee
O (10)

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF MICROORGANISMS
LESSON PLAN
O
After completing this exercise you should be able to:
(1) Identify the parts of the microscope.
(2) care for a microscope.
(3) Use the microscope to view microorganisms.
(4) Recognize groups of microorganisms present in wastewaters.
(5) Identify predominant groups of microorganisms present in
wastewaters.
CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE
1. When carrying the instrument, grasp the arm with one hand, and
place the other hand under the base as a support. Keep the
instrument in an upright position. When the light source is
O not attached, take the scope to your laboratory table first,
and then return for the light source. Do not carry both items
at the same time.
2. Keep the microscope at least 6 inches from the edge of your
laboratory table.
3. Do not handle the lenses with your fingers. Perspiration
contains fatty acids and other substances that can mar the
lens glass. Always use lens paper for cleaning the optical
system.
4. Wipe the lenses of the microscope before and after use.
5. Do not tamper with any components of the instrument. If the
microscope does not seem to be functioning, notify the
instructor immediately.
6. Do not allow chemicals to come into contact with any part of
the instrument.
7. Always be certain that the low -power objective is in the
working position -that is, in line with the body tube -before
putting the microscope away.
M

8. In removing the plug of the light source, do not pull on the
O wire, but grasp the plug firmly and disconnect it from the
socket.
9. If a cover is provided for the microscope, be certain that it
covers the entire instrument.
USING THE MICROSCOPE
Correct observations of microorganisms are dependent on a
basic understanding of a microscope and its parts. The microscope
provided has a built-in light source. The flat portion of the
microscope on which the specimen rests is called the stacte.
Located in the stage is a condenser that ensures proper
illumination in the objective. The condenser has an adjustable
diaphragm which permits reduction of the excess light in the
objective. Too much light through the condenser will make some
specimens appear invisible, while too little light hides the detail
of some specimens. When viewing the specimen, the optics of the
microscope result in inversion of the image so that the specimen
must be moved in the opposite direction to the apparent motion as
observed in the microscope.
The light passes through the specimen into the objective, the
lower lens. There are three objectives located on the revolving
nosepiece, 4X, 1OX and 40X. Light travels from either of these
three objectives through the barrel into the eyepiece where the
image is magnified more. The eyepiece has 1OX magnification. Thus
the total magnification of the image is the product of the eyepiece
times the objective. The microscope we are using has a 1OX
eyepiece and 4X objective that equals 40X magnification, 1OX
eyepiece with a IOX objective that equals 100X magnification and
the 1OX eyepiece with a 40X objective that equals 400X
magnification.
There are two focusing adjustments on the microscope. The
coarse adjustment is used to locate the approximate focus of the
specimen. The fine adjustment permits final focusing.
One of the most difficult aspects of using a microscope is
finding the microorganism you are looking for. The easiest way is
to locate the specimen with the 1OX objective. The objective is
lowered until it almost touches the specimen and then the objective
is slowly moved away from the specimen with the coarse adjustment.
Once the specimen comes into view, the fine adjustment is used to
make precise focusing. Large microorganisms as found in waste-
waters are normally observed at 100X magnification.
Q (2)

0
PROCEDURE FOR EXAMINATION
1. Place a drop of wastewater or material from the sample onto
the 1" x 3" slide (using an eyedropper to collect sample).
2. Gently lower the coverslip in place.
3. Scan the slide from left to right; top to bottom. Identify
and tally microorganisms as the slide is scanned.
4. Use the Work Sheet for Microscopic Examination to tally micro-
organisms viewed. Total the number of organisms counted in
each group and register the results. Three slides per sample
should be examined. Total the number of organisms counted in
each group. The three higher totals are interpreted as the
predominating organisms.'
eyepiec
objecti
fixture sc
arm
co -axial hai
fine adjust
coarse adjust
Preset focus
Illuminator
or built in
Illumination
Q (3)
prism box
evolving nosepiece
nosepiece
objective lens
stage
condenser
condenser stop
is or disc diaphragm
mirror
base

QNEW HANOVER COUNTY
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
DATE:
WORKSHEET FOR
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
PM
TIME: AM
BY: TEMP:
SAMPLE LOCATION:
0-
C
MICROORGANISM
SLIDE
SLIDE
SLIDE
TOTAL
GROUP
NO. 1
NO. 2
NO. 3
AMOEBOIDS
FLAGELLATES
FREE
SWIMMING
CILIATES
STALKED
CILIATES
ROTIFERS
WORMS N
RELATIVE PREDOMINANCE:
2.
3.
m

0
MULTIMEDIA
VIDEO GUIDE
0
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Environmental Education
Field Trip Guide :.:............
What are Constructed Wetlands?
Where are the Constructed Wetlands?
What is this demonstration project abomW
-*What are your field trip activities?
4* What will you learn from this experience?
at Are Constructed
Wetlands? {:ry
sites for the sole purpose
wastewater or sto rmwate r
treatment.
Two types of Constructed Wetl ds
-10 Surface (Free Water Surface)
Subsurface( Vegetated Submerged
. Bed)
m Locatea at the New Hanover t;ou
Landfill Site, Hwy 421 North
m What will this demonstration project
accomplish?
Develop an understanding of the
limitations of constructed wetlands for
Nitrogen removal in coastal NC
Make a full-scale design recommendation
for New Hanover County Landfill

m Wastewater from the landfill is called
leachate
What is landfill leachate?
Rainwater that trickles thro gh the trash
in addition to water already etained by
the trash in the landfill cell.
m What is the current wastewa er
treatment system
Consists of a 4.0 MG lagoon and a .075
MG Wastewater Plant
m The five demonstration plots will
receive landfill leachate in
different stages of treatment
From the 4.0 MG pretreatment
lagoon
From the 75,000 gallon wastewater
plant
wetlands
m Three are subsurface constructed
wetlands
m Two are surface constructed
wetlands
m These five pilot scale plots can be
operated in many flow
configurations
t will your field trip involve?
ield observations and tests
icroscopic studies
omputer data input and chart
ends
to interpretation

IN
Id Trip Activities - Phase 1
field observations
n of plant spec
)nditions of plants
Subsurface wetland p
Surface wetland plots
)bservations of animals, insects
ind amphibians that inhabit
hese areas
Field Trip Activities - Phase 2
" Microscopic Observations
Y Study types of microorganisms
T Identify most abundunt
microorganism type
Compare microorganisms in the different
wetland cells
Compare microorganisms with other
wastewater processes
Id Trip Activities - Phase 1
water samples with field
ant
ph meters
dissolve oxygen meters
colormetric test kits
Tests that will be perform d
water samples....
pH & Dissolved Oxy e
Nitrates & Nitrites
Ammonia & Temperature
Flow measurement
Field Trip Activities - Phase 2
r Computer Data Entry
Enter your field data in a spreadsheet
Interpret Field Data
Trend data to determne pollutant removal
efficiencies in the different wetland cells

What can you expect to learn?
Effects of pollutants on
microorganisms
Experience hands-on use of field
and laboratory equipment
V Compare the effectiveness of
surface flow versus subsurface
flow wetlands in the removal of
contaminants from wastewater
What can you expect to learn?
v�, Identify plants and
microorganisms which assist in
the removal of contaminants
Upon completion of the exercise, be able
to associate processes of contaminant
reduction in a "constructed" wetland with
processes occurring in natural occurring
wetlands and the need to protect these
natural habitats

0 0 0
Environmental Education
Field Trip Guide
it What are Constructed Wetlands?
f Where are the Constructed Wetlands?
i What Is this demonstration project ab
What are your field trip activities? AM
Im
What will you learn from this experience?,
Are Constructed
Wetlands?
sites for the sole purpose of
wastewater or stormwater
treatment.
Two types of Constructed Wetl
'A Surface (Free Water Surface)
it Subsurface( Vegetated Submerged
Bed)
m Located at the New Hanover County
Landfill Site, Hwy 421 North
m What will this demonstration project
accomplish?
Develop an understanding of the
limitations of constructed wetlands for
Nitrogen removal in coastal NC
Make a full-scale design recommendation
for New Hanover County Landfill

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m Wastewater from the landfill is called
leachate
-What is landfill lose ats7
m Rainwater that trickles thro igh the trash
In addition to water already retained by"
the trash In the landfill cell.
m What is the current wastowate
treatment system
m Consists of a 4. 0 MO lagoon and a .075
Ma Wastewater Plant
m The five demonstration plots will
receive landfill leachato in
different stages of treatment
® From the 4.0 MO pretreatment
lagoon
m From the 75,000 gallon wastewater
plant
m Three are subsurface constructed
wetlands
® Two are surface constructed
wetlands
m These five pilot scale plots can be
operated in many flow
configurations
will your field trip involve?
observations and tests
iscopic studies
Mar data input and chart
interpretation

0
K
Trip Activities - Phase 1
field observations
cation of plant species
inditions of plants
Subsurface wetland pi s
Surface wetland plots
Iservations of animals, insects
d amphibians that inhabit
:se areas
Field Trip Activities - Phase 2
t Microscopic Observations
Study types of microorganisms
+ Identify most abundunt
microorganism type
" Compare microorganisms in the different
wetland cells
Compare microorganisms with other
wastewater processes
Activities - Phase 1
water samples with field
ph meters
dissolve oxygen meters
colormetric test kits
Tests that will be perforn ed on
1 water samples....
pH & Dissolved Ox all.
Nitrates & Nitrites
Ammonia & Temperature
Flow measurement
Field Trip Activities - Phase 2
Computer Data Entry
" Enter your field data in a spreadsheet
" Interpret Field Data
Trend data to determne pollutant removal
efficiencies in the different wetland cells

M
K
K
What can you expect to loam?
" Effects of pollutants on
microorganisms
r Experience hands-on use of field
and laboratory equipment
° Compare the effectiveness of
surface flow versus subsurface
flow wetlands in the removal of
contaminants from wastewater
What can you expect to learn?
Identify plants and
microorganisms which assist in
the removal of contaminants
Upon completion of the exercise, be able
to associate processes of contaminant
reduction in a "constructed" wetland with
processes occurring in natural occurring
wetlands and the need to protect these
natural habitats

z
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LL
z

iat are constructed wetlands?
me
Constructed wetlands are desig,ned and built
similartonatural wetlandstotre:tt+yastew•a-
ter. They consist of a shallow depression in
the zruund with a level bottom. The Ilim is
controlled in constructed wctlands so the
water is spread evenly among, the wetland
plants. In natural wetlands. 90% of the
water may flow through small channels.
Controlling, the flow allows natural proc-
esses to occur and clean the wastewater
more efficiently.
w build wetlands? Constructed
wetlands provide simple and effective
wastewater treatment. They can be used to
treat domestic, agricultural, industrial, and
mining wastewaters. Theirconstruction costs
are much less (50 to 90%) than conventional
systems and their operating costs are very
low. Constructed wetlands are also pleasant
to look at, attract desired wildlife, and pro-
vide environmental education opportunities.
®ow do constructed wetlands
work? Wastewater flows through a pipe
from a septic tank or other type of primary
wastewater treatment system into the con-
structed wetland. Wastewater can either
flow on top of the existing soil (surface) or
through a porous medium such as gravel
(subsurface). Flow is distributed evenly
across the width of the wetland cell. A wa-
terproof liner is used on the sides and bottom
of the cell to prevent leaks and assure ade-
quate water for the wetland plants. This cell
is planted with wetland plants such as cat-
tails and bulrushes. Roots and stems of the
plants form a dense mat. Here chemical.
hiological, and physical processes occur to
treat the wastewater. Water levels are con-
trolled in both surface and subsurface sys-
tems. In subsurface systems. the normal
water level is kept I inch below a gravel
surface which improves treatment and
controls mosquitoes.
A second cell may be added. for more treat-
ment. It may be left unlined so that treated
water seeps into the soil below. In smaller
systems the Second cell can contain a laver
of�.Y.ravel. covered with soil.and then mulch.
wetland plants such as iris, elephant ear. and
arrowhead. The plants transpire water into
the atmosphere. The wetlands may or may
not discharge treated wastewater into sur-
face waters depending upon the desi�_n, size.
and local site conditions.
®ow is wastewater treated in con-
structed wetlands ? As waste++titers
flow through the system. suspended solids
and trace metals settle and are filtered. Trace
metals are also absorbed by plants and or-
ganic material. Organisms which live in
water, on rocks, in soil. and on stems and
roots of wetland plants use these organic
materials and nutrients as trod. Plants pro-
vide much of the oxygen needed by the
org,anisms to live and !row. Plant roots
keep the rocks or soil loose so that water can
tloa through easily.
w not use constructed %cetlands
to treat all wastewater? The lack of
standard information for engineers is cur-
rently limiting, the design and construction
ofeffective low cost systems. Constructed
wetlands may not effectively treat some
types of complex pollutants. Thesesystems
also need more land than conventional Sys-
tems. Hig,h land costs and lack of suitable
land can make construction of large systems
impractical. Sites which are relatively flat.
ha%edeepsoils.andalow groundwater [able
are needed forsniall scale systems. Nlosqui-
toes can also be a problem, but this can be
prevented or controlled with proper system
design and management.
nre constructed wetlands foryou?
Constructed wetlands will answermany, but
not every, wastewater need. They may be
used by small towns. developers, small busi-
nesses. individual homes with failed septic
systems, farms operations, and some types
of industry. They meet secondary treatment
limits and can be designed for advanced
treatment. Their construction and operating
costs are very low, and they do not need
operators who are highly trained.
Small towns and rural areas often have
problems meeting todays strict water qual-
ity standards. Many lack central wastewa-
ter treatment systems. Constructed wet-
lands can now provide them with a good
wastewater treatment alternative. Smaller
versions can also be built to meet the needs
of homes with failed septic systems. Con-
structed wetlands can help us improve water
quality as we learn more and apply them ef-
fectively to treat various types of wastewa-
ters.
here can I get more information?
Contact TVA's Water Quality Department,
HB 2S270C, 311 Broad Street. Chattanooga,
Tennessee 37402-2801 or call (615) 751-
3164.
',�,:;�!: xr `'�` Y3 ice?"'f`31u�"v'�;":�.:��?€5�'���rt. ��"�r.��+."�►it�6�►.��a"�f�l's_tivPl�; �pi►n�"ifred by `')r

Mat are wetlands? Wetlands are
"wet" areas that at least sometimes, have
waterlogged soils or are covered with a
shallow laver of water. In these areas, water
is the most important element. Plants and
animals found in wetlands can only live in
watery environments. Marshes, swamps,
bogs, sloughs and floodplains are types of
wetlands.
Dy are wetlands important to
US? Wetlands help improve water quality,
store floodwaters, reduce erosion, and re-
charge groundwater. They are essential
breeding grounds and habitat for fish and
wildlife. Wetlands also provide recrea-
tional areas to fish and hunt, and important
products such as timber and seafood. Wet-
lands are truly nature's wonderlands!
©ow do wetlands help improve
water quality? Surface water runoff
from land flows through wetlands before
reaching open water. Here the water slows
down. Suspended solids settle and are fil-
tered by plants. Organic material and nutri-
ents are used as food by organisms. Trace
metals settle in the soil and are absorbed by
plants. Pollutants are reduced and changed
into harmless substances by complex and
natural processes occurring among wetland
plants and animals.
Dy are wetlands so important to
wildlife? Wetlands are critical to the sur-
vival of many animals. For many, like the
beaver, muskrat, and wood duck, wetlands
are the only places they can live. Other
animals such as the striped bass and deer.
depend on wetlands for food, water, and
cover. Millionsofw'aterfowland shorebirds
breed and winter in wetlands every year.
Also. wetlands sustain nearly 1/3 of the Na-
tion's threatened and endangered species.
Mty have so many of our Nation's
wetlands been destroyed? in the
past, wetlands were regarded as wastelands
—sources of mosquitoes, flies, and unpleas-
ant odors. Most people felt wetlands were
places to be avoided or eliminated. As a
result, over half of America's original wet-
lands have been drained and converted to
farmland or filled forhousing developments
and industrial facilities. They have even
been used as dump sites for household and
hazardous wastes. However, as we increase
our knowledge and understanding, our atti-
tudes and care of wetlands are improving.
Mhat is being done to protect
wetlands? The major regulatory tool for
protecting wetlands is Section 404 of the
Federal Clean Water Act. It regulates dis-
charge of dredged or fill materials into most
wetlands. Govemment agencies such as the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service obtain wet-
lands each year with Federal funds. Other
government programs induce wetland con-
servation through private incentives. For
example, the Water Bank Program pays
landowners toprotect waterfowl habitat. The
1986 Tax Reform Act prohibits income tax
Wedands provide recreational areas
to fish and hunt.
deductions by farmers to drain or fill wet-
lands. The 1985 Swampbuster Program
removes most Federal flood and crop insur-
ance and price support from farmers who
convert wetlands to farmlands. The Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) estab-
lished an Office of Wetlands Protection in
1986 to provide national leadership to pro-
tect wetlands. A truly effective program to
protect the Nation's wetlands needs coop-
eration of al] government agencies, develop-
ers, environmental groups, scientists. engi-
neers, and individuals.
Mhat can you do to protect
wetlands? Active citizen support is
essential.. Protect wetlands on your own
property. Become involved in local plan-
ning and zoning issues and resist proposed
developments in wetlands. Reportconstruc-
tion taking place in wetlands to your state
conservation agency, the EPA, and the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers. Support envi-
ronmental groups such as the National
Wildlife Federation. Conservation Founda-
tion. Ducks Unlimited, and !nature Conser-
vancy. These groups are active in lobbying
for important wetland legislation and/or
buying wetlands. i
here can .I get more informa-
tion? Contact EPA's Weiland Unit. 345
Courtland Street, N.E., Atlanta. Georgia
30365.
tr x ,,T•,"Pc'��v-�,-.�..+,.�r..x?. s ;ara'�"�•'•��. +-r.'"''3�1"„''" "�'_" `�.i �-�'vS� .-Fz%a�«c""� t'..'.'�,.,. ,T.�..�'f�1TT
r.".s... u'..atis�:ae%Jr %,;�.'1,;;'. •,dri:�i.:�da Q Hrs4x3.iia:5�. s'x rr� : r _ �; � �•� y,- �+�`wn, a- s._;Z�., �, �

a
Constructed Wetlandslikethis one are being built
throughout the nation to handle wastewater from mostly small rural
communities and homes where traditional treatment systems are a
problem.
'Vr•144'f.•�..• N �y,r
Wastewater flows into the constructed wetland from a septic tank
UI-'Ul 1'+S"iY/•" �••\ '.'.rfr.I�,•,J,,,
or other type of primary treatment system. Here the wastewater is .•r"''"'" " ": " ,"•
V..1M�MIAI fNr-�"" I•( r.1I'IMYr• '••
evenly distributed among the plants where microorganisms and r Cell 2 I4,w1.,
IwJIF W„rVw al,,r. r r V ; • ` .rlp WrYr„•r ® -
chemical reactions break down organic materials and pollutants. 14vur• °•• •. I , I I4.vrp "`..
i vw.. t�. .ail • .,,.v„
r Ju> .Nr. 91•.Jr '> �, 6�. a ,"""
Constructed wetlands provide simple, effective, and low cost v,l;r"tt+r,r+>+,Y• """ •�y;4 r �ti`• v •; , „1�'r• :� ' �..-y:• "• .- •'
wastewater treatment when o -lv!ty iW" " \I'''f v *✓' "'' c mpared with conventional systems. \ut. �, )r„ 1,. ' tv +Y'.• r i Gi -
' Vv,`• YI ,"VIM Nb•�plp Y.
}, �1�., • �•• t•: ('ihY;
tq
>y,: .1►:,Y •11��. 14.M � rl • � .. ail L 4ir,Nrw.•vaip.
111;H MI, \�II,'•O'.,\M 111r••�•Ilr. �rrYfrF�.
'•�"il "'ryyl r ''• ' ,• s utJap4t J4•W^..� i•. � 1 I / �ri./[�..•' ,l * :�i u
14 N I/ 1•Y �,rp
_ > �• +
lid
Cell \luw;rvr,%�/t
wyy.'t�l' �\1 ,•I '{ '�yr.�j�lj �/' •�. .'.y.•:� r'+114'vUr• W ,:, •,' 17 I, •�. ' �\'7�.
fir, ��Lr`cv,Y'IJ,'!t//,;r\t ��� 1 ti;7r/����f !'•�°%�/.�� a •%w ��• '••'Q•'••. , J\',"IS . , 1.
",.W..Jr•.y�i `'�• ,,� /1� � �/� �•/ � r � .` ;``�Y� � 1�`••-:.<�Yt• Zt) � �� /7 I it � T•
r. •°,v,.a �• { `1\/ � 1 �I. /' L7 %: �w+'v..,Y•...•^,'' L\ (� Op�,,t�
1',�,14 ' i:4 ' ;W.•YtY•.r II Illi1'aY •yl{/.I
.•°"0. , `.f �l{ r M �/{ r Mp•,Iri•: ��"'e•� Ifr±ll:i ,K
"•+.: J IN �I 3 tt uY.,a!�µ ul F•17 r 1a
• ,•. _ 1J O�>'�y(yt�'�j�I I'� I.MM •• •1
,Wastewater enters the constructed wetland (1)
where it is distributed evenly across the width of the first
�". cell by a series of plastic valves or PVC tees (2). The first cell
contains gravel 3 A waterproof liner is lined on the sides and the
bottom of the first cell to conserve water and provide more effective
rr;; .,d�' •M':,ll,rYl, r treatment (4). Cattails and bulrushes are usually planted In the first cell (5).
"""'v,�S ";ii% %: t"•'+ w•, The roots of these marsh plants form a dense mat among the gravel (6). Here chemical,
\v�!`"'' biological and physical processes take lace which purify the water. Water from the first
\� ,\,�c• 9 P Ys P P P fY
cell passes Into the second cell through a perforated pipe embedded In large stone (7).
The water level within each cell is regulated by swivel standpipes located In concrete tanks
:at the end of each cell 8 . Wastewater in the second cell is distributed even across this
tyt.'rrl� +owj1 t,�. r?ll�f}1ti1 tl r. O o
;; , j , � 1�� J � : ?cell through another perforated pipe (t3). Cell 2 has a layer of gravel (10) covered with
1
•ii1J topsoil 11 and then mulch 12
„r . .. li?it j•1,; I (i's;i pl'+.'t�i'; f l P ( ) ( ). This cell is planted with a variety of ornamental wetland
�! is �t`t; ilJ plants such as iris, elephant ear and arrowhead (13). The water In cell 2 eventually seeps
Into the soil below (14) or passes into another perforated pipe (15) where it is released into
a drainfield similar to those used with conventional septic tanks (16).'
Figure 1. Cut -A -Way Perspective of a Constructed Wetlands System

NATURE IN
`\ \ CARBON DIOXIDE
OXYGEN CO2 OXYGEN OXYGEN •
ACTION
02 NITROGEN �� i 02 �• 10D 102 I
'N2 CARBON DIOXIDE NOS • 02 02
Organisms live on the rocks, in the soil, CO �� •
and on the stems and r000ts of wetland 2/ • • I Qz �,
plants. These organisms naturally absorb A 2 02 `1
and break down wastewater pollutants. CH4 I 02
�j
_
The plants provide oxygen to the organisms. • • • 02 O.
The roots keep the rocks or soil loose so the
water can flow through easily. Nutrients in NO3 02 02 i
the wastewater also fertilize the wetland • O
plants. ■ z I
02 02 102
ot
� NOS ■ � 02 \, �
■
Organisms in the soil break down CH4 • • 02 % 02 •
wastewater pollutants. x ■ • 02
No 02
.^�� of �f .. ■ x CH4 • • NOS
cm t o I NOS •
I ■ 0 x CH4
1 � �j x
° / ♦ Free Oxygen Zone A •
U o ♦ Chemically Bound
Oxygen Zone
! No Oxygen Zone
i° Organic Material x3'g
■ Nitrogen Compounds •p 0�° , �PoO ■ OOoo; , y'=: Oxygen leaking through pores in the roots
♦ Phosphorus ....... .� • iJ /1 �• c o x� �' creates "micro -zones" of bacterial activity.
'! A Solids o °o' p p k O d(! The zone closest to the root has the most
� � • "• ...• : ti 1 •• -�
oxygen and supports the greatest amount
�C Metals O Oo�,^ •� O 0��0 �/, 8� of biological activity.
• Bacteria and Viruses
^— --- �♦■ ■ �♦'tix ♦x♦ • � • no�000�� �?p �� x .off.. ---- • w x �
u0
WASTEWATER L 0° x o° o "TREATED" WATER
O OO �,� OEN10
o0 C1���•11• li... .... ... ... �.. ... ... �.. ..i u.1 PA, J1%

THE USE OF WETLAND SYSTEMS FOR
WATER TREATMENT
Interest in wetlands for water treatment can be
attributed to the following:
• Public demand for more stringent
effluent standards; including removal
of nutrients, organics, suspended matter
and heavy metals
• Recognition of natural treatment
functions of wetlands
• Escalating costs of conventional
treatment of facilities
• Appreciation of aesthetic and wildlife
benefits provided by wetlands
• Recognition that wetland treatment may
be the only possible alternative (i.e.
wetlands treatment versus no treatment)

I
MECHANISMS FOR NUTRIENT AND
POLLUTANT REMOVAL BY WETLANDS
BOTH NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS
HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO EFFECTIVELY REMOVE
NUTRIENTS, SOLIDS AND OTHER POLLUTANTS
FROM STORMWATER AS WELL AS DOMESTIC
WASTEWATER (SEWAGE EFFLUENT)
THESE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS REMOVE
POLLUTANTS THROUGH A SERIES OF COMPLEX
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
PROCESSES, INCLUDING:
• Entrapment
• Sedimentation
• Adsorption
• Chemical precipitation (phosphorus)
• Biological Processes
► Bacterial denitrification
► Bacterial and algal uptake
► Uptake by wetland vegetation

FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES OF
WETLANDS
• GROUNDWATER RECHARGE/DISCHARGE
• FLOOD FLOW ALTERATION
• SEDIMENT STABILIZATION
• REMOVAL OF NUTRIENTS, SEDIMENT
AND TOXICS
• GENERAL WILDLIFE HABITAT
• SUPPORT UNIQUE BIOLOGICAL SPECIES
• WILDLIFE BREEDING, MIGRATION OR
WINTERING
• UNIQUE HABITATS/NATIONAL HERITAGE
• RECREATION

New Shoot
-Water Surface
'!Rhizome
ROOT HAIR ENLARGED
Reduced
Zone
Figure 5. Wetlands plants have the unique ability to transport oxygen to support their roots
growing in anaerobic substrates.

:y 7
Man -Made used to treat
a vv ste
Natural v _08 x _
system�_� i �n
�
nal tit
f� Yioi�
_
for treating
wastewater i ttt�rat�ttls av�ntl► u�� a#t t� piartts wtrare'tn►crooYga�srira arxk�tt�tuloat tea#s,� r
TYIfK''hfAA/f�f*'[}t1♦!PiYtAIC'PIl1tI.'Yft�Nk1iR11tQ
saves money
By JANEr OLSON
StafWiuea
Flushing the toilet has become a
matter of pride for residents in Ar-
cata, Calif. North Carolina officials
think the same , thing can happen
here. a Y..
All it takes, they say, is a little bit
of teamwork between mankind and
Mother Nature.'
Communities -an across the na-
tion are making a good name for the
nasty, sometimes . smelly ► job of
sewage treatment. In these com-
munities; mechanized sewagei
treatment systems are out. Wet-
lands are in.
They're treating waste the mtu-,
ral way — filtering it through a se-
ries of man-made Ponds, marshes
and planted fields. The wastewater
that comes out b just as clean = if
not cleaner — than what is dumped
from conventional systems.
And- the -_system itself: can be-
come a cotnrnunity asset. Arcata
has developed its string of- man-
made- marshes. into a. large park,
which has -spawned loads of com-
muni�_pride. - c
-deers call the systems-!mn-.
stnrcted wetlands." •, i
Government officials c4- them `
good news.
"Constructed wetlands have
three things going -for them," said
Don Flowers, director of the Alber-
marle Commission, - a council of
governments in northeastern North
Carolina. `Number one, .iVworks.
Number two; - it's low. -tech;. and
number three, it's chN1f1;."
t 1
Mr. Flowers' group is looking for
money to help Hyde County build a
constructed wetland for the com-
munity of; Engelhard,:. The' group
also is working :.with : two Gates
County elementary.. schools that
plan to use wellari sue= -
r The northeastern North Carolina
projects could become. pioneering
efforts for the rest of the state.
u- "We plan to issue permits for
some of these to see how they
work," said Roger Thorpe, regional
water quality supervisor for the
N.C. Division of Environmental
Management in Washington, N.C.
Though some countries have
been using the systems for as many
entersand. form a dense mat among the
is distributed grovel. Here chemical,
even biological and physical
into basin. processes purify _
the water. .
Cattails and
bulrushes
Water passes intoahe
In the second cell - water: passes tfuougtt ;. .'
second cell through
ornamental wetland plants then seepsthrough
perforated pipe. The
mulch, topsoil and gravel and eventually into
water level is regulated
soil below. Excess water is released into a
by standpipes. -
drainfield similar to those used with septic tanl
Ornamental wetland plants such as
«, ..
irises., elephant ears and arrowheads �--
as 20 years, the systems are con-
nutrients trom the waste through
A conventional sewage system
isidered experimental in the United
, their roots and flourish above the
would be too costlyforHyde Coun-
iStates:: State and federal regulators
surface.
residents. The high a-
ter
;are trying to get. -a ha dle on how
All of this happens without the
a
tetable ble would require deep instal-
Isuccessful they are.
odor or unsightly lagoons used in
lation of sewer and chat
The U.S. Environmental Protec-
conventional systems.
_ling
, means _ astronomical costsi, said
lion Agency is conducting a nation-
As a result, the system becomes
Dick -George, assistant director of
wide survey, trying to find out how
; an attraction for wildlife and nature
the Albemarle Commission.
many communities are using the
i lovers. In Arcata, birdwatchers
.. Mr.. George is sure .the county
;systems and how well they work.A
! have counted almost 200 bird spe-
can save money with the wetland
preliminary survey turned up 154
cies in the wastewater treatment
system, but he is unsure of how
community systems already in use
i system -turned -sanctuary, accord-
much. Building the wetland cells
,or in the planning stages. The sur-
ing to a recent article in Smithson-
would cost between $300,000 and
°vey didn't count the many systems
i ran magazine-
$400,000, he said. But Hyde Coun-
in use at individual homes.
"The outpourings of Arcata's toi-
ty also would have to build a pump -
State officials have collected piles
i lets have become a source of civic
ing system to get sewage from
of information from the Tennessee
;pride —and humor, says the anti-
homeowners' septic tanks to the
Valley Authority, which has helped
' c1e by freelance writer Doug Stew-
wetlands. That system has yet to
communities in a number of .states
art. 'The town inaugurated its new
be designed.
design and build the systems. From
sewage system by holding a 'Flush
In contrast, engineers have told
what they've seen and heard: Mr.
with Pride' festival. Citizens wore,
Hyde County officials that it would
Thorpe saidl systems seem to
T-shirts emblazoned with the festi-
val s logo, a salmon leaping out of a
cost $490,000 to treat the waste
work., .;
They work sewage
toilet as a great blue heron perched
from one school near Lake Matta -
' muskeet, Mr. George said.
through a series of�wedand
'011 the seat.".:... _ =`
"A visitor's center is being
That's close to the cost of build -
the for Engelhard,
Before waste goes to the wet-
planned for the park, and there's
}mg wetlands
land systems, it filters through a
talk of posting signs inside its toilet.
which would treat 35 times more
man-made system, such as a lagoon
or septic. tank. There, large solids
stalls that will read: 'Thank You for
"
a Gates County, schools plan
are removed.
Next, a series of pumps and plas-
Your Contribution.'
MIr. Flowers of the Albemarle
-to build wetland. systems for
Mr• George said.
tic pipes moves the wastewater to
the wetland system. There, soil,
Commission envisions similar suc-,�,
. cesses in North Carolina if all goes
: I know about 35 percent of the
gravel, water and plant roots act as
well with the pioneer effort in En-
schools in North Carolina -. i . that
filters, removing tiny solids from
gem. -
"We're excited as all get out'
have their own on -site sewage
treatment are going to be just over -
Microorganisms that live in the
about it," he said. "We think it's
joY� to hear that news." be said.
wetland systems feast on organic
going to be a solution for the whole
"
material in the wastewater, remov,. , state
ing it just as they do in conventional-; In Engelhard, a high water table
Itt'has caused the failure of septic sys-
treatment systems.
`tee. Sewage is running off home -
:Natural chemical reactions take
,place as the waste travels through
owners property into a creek that
the cells, reducing the amount of
runs the Pamlico Sound. Baste -
ammonia and nitrogen in the waste.
na counts
ts in the creek are 100
tunes higher than the level the state
The waste acts as a fertilizer in
considers safe.
the wetland system. Plants absorb

V,
DISSEMINATION
C WWT NEWS
CLEANER WATER
FROM NATURE
Volume 1 Fall 1992 No. 1
FROM THE TREATMENT PIT
This issue of CWWT NEWS begins our effort to keep
all you constructed wetlanders informed. Send us
information on your classroom activities, publications,
awards, and research. (Thanks to all who sent
information for this first issue. ed.).
PESTS
Are you worried about mosquito problems in your
constructed wetland? Perhaps you do not feel killifish
or mosquito fish are appropriate to your design, here is
an alternative. First, make sure you have good water
flow and no pooling or ponding. Second, check
periodically for mosquito larvae in areas that may seem
stagnant. Third, if you discover mosquito larvae, treat
with BTl (Bacillus thurmgiensis). This is a bacterial
"pesticide" highly specific for mosquito larvae, and safe
to use. The pluses for BTl are:
• targets mosquito larvae only.
• reduces or eliminates spraying of insecticides
• less environmental and human damage, and
• more cost effective.
The minuses are:
• specific for mosquito larvae so application
must occur within 1-2 days of larval hatch,
• impossible to target a specific brood once the
mosquito becomes established. This is
because mosq:; oes are emerging, laying
eggs and hatc ;ing continuously during the
warm weather months. (see Ninivaggi in
R,af=-rences. e-J.`.
TREATMENT COMPARISON
The major problems facing wastewater treatment in the
U.S. today are': (1) the high cost of constructing,
operating and maintaining a conventional waste
treatment facility, and (2) the continuous destruction of
wetlands for the expansion of agriculture and
construction projects. The growing interest in using
natural and constructed wetlands systems arises from
economic considerations. In the main, wetlands
systems are cheaper to construct, maintain and
operate. The following is a list of the advantages and
disadvantages of using constructed wetlands to treat
wastewater.
Tablel. The benefits and the costs of using constructed
wetlands for wastewater treatmentl.
BENEFITS
COSTS
cheaper to build
needs a larger land area
cheaper to operate
potential mosquito
habitat
energy efficient
lacks optimal design
factors
consistent and reliable
engineers and
regulators unfamiliar
with technology
simple operation
pulsed releases may
cause phosphorus
problems
advanced technology
poor operation
may produce
undesirable odors
may eliminate sludge
some geographical
handling
areas may be
temperature and
season dependent
eliminate handling of
may spread
chemicals
I pathogens
aesthetically leasin
accepts load variations
attractive to wildlife
1. This information adapted from 3iotmatment News. 2(9),
1992.

CWWT NEWS Volume 1 Fall 1992 No. 1 Page 2
NEWS ITEMS
(Tell us what you are doing. ed.)
The first of the Wastewater Treatment with Advanced
Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems and
Constructed Wetlands short courses was October 27-
30, 1992 at the Ramada Inn in Fort Collins. Everyone
wore a name tag. (Send Maury Albertson suggestions
for sites and cooperation for future short courses. ed.).
From out behind the bam in Bowling Green, Ohio, Gary
Silverman reports that: His project to develop a wetland
to treat agriculture runoff 'should get started this Fall'
He'll let us know more in the future. (Great news Gary.
We look forward to more information.-ed.)
INFORMATION
MODELING
Mathematical models are abstract representations of
the real world. Each model's construction occurs for a
variety of reasons which include
• a simplified description of the system of
interest, and
• a method for prediction of dynamic change
over time.
Every model must have three basic properties (goals).
these are:
• realism (degree to which the mathematics
correspond to the concepts they represent),
• precision (ability of the model to predict
numerical change and mimic the real world
data), and .
• generality (how many different situations can
this model address).
Developing a model of your constructed wetland and
its function starts with a conceptual analysis. Initially,
decide whether the model is stochastic (includes
affects of random variability in forcing functions and
parameters)or deterministic (ignores random
variability). The mathematical statements will have four
basic elements (Figure 1 and Table 2 )
• system variales (numbers 'hat represent the
condition ct "- s; s::m at arptirrej.
• transfer functions (interactions between the
components of the system),
• forcing functions (inputs to the system that
itself), and
• parameters (constants of the mathematical
equations).
In the following example, P(t)=Po + Pg(t) - Pe(t)
represents the change in biomass of a population over
a period of time. The model states that for any period
in time the Phytoplankton Biomass [P(t)] is equal to the
Initial Population E-Yomass Size [Po] plus the Growth of
the Population Biomass [Pg(t)] minus the Amount of
Biomass Grazed [Pe(t)]. Figure 1 is pictorial view of a
system under study for the effects of grazing on
phytoplankton by zooplanidon.
WATER
QUAl(TT
Ew \ I _t rxrroruwxrow H zoorwrKTON
J'r� 1.DwwW6LAn• FILTER FILO M)
1 aDYTDr•
NUTRIENTS
AASTR
Figure 1 . Develop the cer>tral concept first.
Table 2. Every model.must have the followina basics.
ITEM
COMPONENT
SYSTEM VARIABLES-
PHYTOPLANKTON
ZOOPLANKTON
TRANSFER
FUNCTIONS
GRAZING RATE
GROWTHRATE
FEEDING PATTERN
BIOMASS
FORCING
FUNCTIONS
TEMPERATURE
SALINITY ifmarine
WATER
TRANSPARENCY
WATERDENSITY
DEPTH
DAYLENGTH
LIGHT
SOLAR RADIANCE
TIMEOFDAY
NUTRIENTS
PARAMETERS1
A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H.
1. An examp;e of a parameter is a mathematical expression
that ircreases and decreases the light i—ensity over a 24
hour Faricx4—

v
j`. CWWT NEWS Volume 1 Fall 1992 No. 1 Page 3
Bill Oswalds Fecal Facts
The following are yields from three principle gases
formed in the sewage treatment process
CiAS
WEIGHT
CARBON
( m/ft3)
(g m)
METHANE
20
15
(CH4)
CARBON
56
15
DIOXIDE
(CO2)
NITROGEN
35
0
(N2)
ON THE AVERAGE:
• WE EAT 10 GRAMS OF
NITROGEN/DAY
• WE RELEASE 80 GRAMS
OF DRY WEIGHT SOLIDS PER DAY
EDUCATION
FROM THE MIND OF BILL OSWALD
TITLE: Demonstration of the Cleansing Capacity of a
Natural System
PURPOSE:Demonstrate the effectiveness of natural
biological systems for controlling carbon and
gtzr•;rating oxygen for odor control.
PRINCIPAL: In wastewater, when the oxygen
demand by the growing bacteria exceeds the oxygen
released by the microalgae the liquid will have a "vile"
odor. When the oxygen released by microalgae
vials or exceeds the oxygen demanded by the
bacteria the "vile" odor disappears.
MATERIALS:
• sewage or industrial waste effluent water
• natural pond or aquarium water green with
microalgae
• dilution water (ref.1)
• cleaned and sterilized 500 ml or 1000 ml
Erlenmeyer flasks (number depends on
replicates)
• metal caps for flasks
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill Erlenmeyer flasks with sewage effluent
and dilution water (for the 1000 ml flasks use
500 ml, for the 500 ml flasks use 200 ml total
volume):
Figure 2. Experimental flasks with dilution on labels.
Dilution:
(1). full sewage effluent
(2). one half sewage effluent (SE) to
one half dilution water (DW)
(3). 1 SE to 5 DW
(4). 1 SE to 10 DW
(5). 1 SE to 20 DW
(6). 1 SE to 40 DW
SWIRL TO MIX
2. add 1 ml of fresh pond water to each flask.
SWIRL TO MIX
3. set flasks in a north window or out of direct
sunlight.
4. daily swirl flask, remove metal cap, and sniff.
5. record impressions of the odor and when it
disappears (ref.2).
6. plot a histogram of odor disappearance time
aaainst dilution.
7.have students interpret, analyze, draw
conclusions and explain what is happening.

"o1,
CWWT NEWS Volume 1
Fall 1992 No. 1 Page 4
REFERENCES:
Also, the National Ecology Research Center, 2627
1. Dilution Water. ANON. 1985 (or later
Redwing Road, Fort Collins, Colorado 80526-2899
edition), Standard Methods for the
is responsible for computer modeling courses in
Examination of Water and Waste Water.
Automated Wetland Creation/Restoration
American Public Health Association,
Bibliogra hn ical pig 52aa, Wetland Classification
Washington D.C. pp. 527-528.
Training, Habitat Evaluation Procedures and Habitat
2. Odor. ANON. 1985 (or later edition),
Suitability Index. Contact Mike for more information.
Standard Methods for the Examination of
He has a list of the courses and the costs.
Water and Waste Water. American Public
From Jack Gordon tending his sour mash in
Health Association, Washington D.C. pp. 85-
Cookeville: Brown, D. S. 1992. Sent the following
91 •
EPA information on wetlands for wastewater
3. Eutrophication Trends in the United
treatment from the 1991, Database: North American
States --A Problem. Oswald, W.J. and C.G.
Wetlands for Water Quality Treatment mm ij
Goleuke. 1966. Journal of the Water Pollution
for Wetland Wastewater Treatment Systems. If you
Control Federation. 38(6):964-974.
did not get a copy, contact Jack Gordon at TTU.
SOURCES
From The Editor collecting poison Ivy In a
local wetland:
OF
America's Endangered Wetlands. A brochure available
INFORMATION
from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Contains
many excellent color photos on one side and a
poster with the benefits of wetlands on the other.
"
Contact the local office of the Department of the
r
Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Status and Trends of Wetlands and Deepwater
((A
Habitats. Available for $5.00 from Department of
Forest and Wood Sciences, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, CO 80523.
(Information sources of scientific and contemporary
nature. Send us input for this section. ed.) R
I. BROCHURES, MAPS, REPORTS
From Steve Buchberger drinking that Ohio
River water so carefully filtered by all the
people upstream:
National Wetlands Maps. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
has a map covering all the states (scale=1:3,268,00)
except Alaska. The map measures 3.5 x 5.5 feet. For
further information about this map and
other wetlands inventory products call 1-800-872-
6277. Price is $10.00 for the map. The address is
USGS Map Sales, Box 25286, Denver, CO 80255.
Wetlands Restoration, Enhancement, or Creation.
Chapter 13 of the Engineering Field Handbook
developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil
Conservation Service address the subjects of
processes and characteristics, planning and site
selection, design, implementation, monitoring, and
manageiment. n"equest from your local office of
the Soil Ccrservation Service.
From Mike Ells dusting off his snowshoes in
the north woods:
Anon. 1992. ".1arket and Gove.-nment Failures in
Environmental Management: Wetlands and Forests.
OECD Publications and lnformation Center, 2001 L
Strut, N.W.. W'_ashinglon, D.C. 20036-4910,
$2400. call 1-300- =56 CECD.
II. COMPUTER PROGRAMS
From Mike Ells hibernating In the woods of
Michigan:
Wetlands Education. A, 2 high density floppy disk,
program written for the PC. Purchase from Public
Brand Software, P.O. Box 51315, Indianapolis, IN
46251. Price is $10.00. (Program requires a PC with a
VGA monitor to display graphics. It will run on an EGA
but only text and a constructed wetland graphic
display. Students at the Naval Academy find it
interesting. ed.)
From the Editor scractching the poison ivy:
Powerpoint. (version 2.01 for Mac, 3.0 for
PC)Presentation graphics for both Macintosh and PCs
running Windows 3.1. This programs is an object
oriented drawing program that makes overheads,
35mm slides and handouts. Purchase from
Macwarehouse (Macintosh) or Microwarehouse (PC)
47 Water Street, South Norwalk, Connecticut 06854
(800-622-62222). Price is $245.00 for Mac, $315.00
for PC.
Service Bureau. Need'a place to send the graphics
you produced with Powerpoint and print them in color

, I C IAWt/T N
Fall 1
as an overhead or paper, make you a 35mm color slide
from the info on your computer disc? I suggest you
contact Nextwave Productions, 134 Tenth Avenue,
New York, NY 10011-4727 (800-445-9002, Fax:212-
989-9675). First check your University and see if the
Media Department has a color printer, and/or a slide
maker. In fact, most large cities have service bureaus. (/
find the Service Bureau to be cheaper and faster than
the local media department. ed.)
111. ORGANIZATIONS
ASSOCIATION OF STATE WETLAND
MANAGERS
Jon Kusler, Exec. Dir. PO Box 2463
Berne,NY12023,Phone:[phone].Professionals
involved in wetland management. Wetland News
(quarterly). Focuses on the promotion and
improvement of protection and management in U.S.
wetlands.
NATIONAL WETLANDS TECHNICAL
COUNCIL
Nicole Veillernx, Exec.Sec. 1616 P St. NW, 2nd Floor,
Washington, DC 20036 Phone: [phone].
Scientists in the field of wetlands ecology. National
Wetlands Newsletter( bimonthly). Focuses on coastal
resources issues, including management and policy.
IV. REFERENCES
Alper, J.1992. War Over the Wetlands: Ecologists vs.
the White House. Science 257: 1043-1044.
Bohlen, C. C. 1989. Controversy Over Federal
Definition of Wetlands. Bioscience. March
139.
Chabreck, R. H. 1988. Coastal Marshes: Ecology and
Wildlife Management. University of Minnesota
Press, Minneapolis.
Farber, S. and R. Constanza. 1987. The economic
value of wetlands systems. Journal of
Environmental Management. 24(1): 41-51.
Marble, A.D. 1992. A Guide to Wetland Functional
Design. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FI.
222 pp. This guide to wet lands provides
coherent design guidance or. wetland
replacement for estuarine, palustrine, riverine,
and lcustrine systems.
Mitche'.I. J.G. 1992. Our Disappearing Wetlands.
National Geographic, 182(4):3-45.
Ninivaggi, D. 1989. Managing New York's Mosquito
Coast. The Conservationist. July -August.
Rostar:. T. 1992. Wetlands. American Nurseryman. 15
April: 35-45.
Stein�21, P. 1990. No Net Loss. Audubon. July: 18-
21.
WiiliaM.son, L.1992. What's a V:etland. Outdoor Life.
March:46-49.
V. ADDITIONS
ERRATA
FOR
NATURAL SYSTEMS FOR WASTE
MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT
(S.C. Reed, E.J. Middlebrooks, D.W. Crites) McGraw -
HiII Book Company, New York, NY, SECOND
PRINTING, JUNE 5, 1991
Chapter 4, page 119, Table 4.6, the k20 is not
defined, insert: k20=O.0064
Chapter 6,
1. page 175, equation (6.2) add the term d to the
numerator inside the parenthesis (d is depth of water in
meters).
2. page 175, definition of A factor, under equation 6.2.
This gives 0.52, that is valid for untreated wastes and
primary effluent. The A factor should be 0.73 for SOD
S 30 mg/L. .
3. page 175; in list of term definitions for equation 6.2
add: d= water depth in meters.
4. page 178, third line from -top, now ends: becomes,
change to: becomes, for primary effluent: (this change
Is needed since the 0.52 factor in the equations is only
valid for untreated or primary effluent.
5. pages 182-183, equations 6.11, 6.12, 6.13 and
6.14. As presented, these equations are only valid for
primary effluent because of the 0.6539 factor in the
numerator of each equation. These equations will he
valid for the general case if + 1nA is substituted for
the -0. 6539.
6. page 183, definition of rate constant Kt. Change =
k200.1)(T-20°) to: = K20(1.06) (T-20°).
7. page 183, example 6.1 is not correct since the 1.1
factor for temperature adjustment has been changed
as indicated above (item 6).
8. page 190, eqquation 6.20. Change to:
KT = K20(1.06) ( -20°).
9. page 190, 1 st line under equation 6.20 which
defines K20, add the following: K20 = 1.104 for
gravel and rock media, K20 = 0.806 for sand and soil
media.
10. page 191. Delete entire page, this concept has not
been validated.
11. page 192, delete first three lines at top of page
since this is a continuation of deleted discussion on
previous page.
12. page 194, The results of example 6.2 are not
correct since steps 4 and 5 in the procedure used
incorrect values for K20 and the temperature
correction. K20 in this case should have been 0.806,
and the 1.1 factor in step 5 should be 1 . r 6.
Substitution of these values will then give the correct
answer.

r
Volume 1
VT GD
(Send us terms and definitions for this section. ed.)
Some of the following definitions are from Marble
(1992)-see SOURCES OF INFORMATION section.
Ammonium volatilization - Abiotic process which
results in the removal of ammonium by outgassing.
Artificially flooded - The amount and duration of
flooding is controlled by means of pumps or siphons in
combination with dikes and dams.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - The
oxygen requirements of wastewaters, effluents and
polluted waters. It is a measure of the oxygen required
to degrade organic material, oxidize inorganics
(sulphide, ferrous iron, reduced forms of nitrogen).
Channel - An open conduit which periodically or
continuously contains moving water.
Channel flow - Observable movement of surface
water in a confined zone.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) - The COD is a
measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic
matter of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a
strong chemical oxidant.
Cluster - Wetlands situated so that there is a large
number of wetland acres per total square miles.
Clustered wetlands are not necessarily contiguous.
Constricted outlet - A surface outlet on a channel
less than one-third the maximum width of the wetland,
or a surface outlet on 'a standing body of water less
than one -tenth the width of the wetland.
Constructed wetland - wet areas created from non
wetland sites for the sole purpose of wastewater or
storm water treatment. These areas are not
considered wasters of the U.S. (normally).
Constructed wetlands are treatment systems subject
to monitoring and treatment whose discharges must
meet NPDES permit effluent limits as well as state
water quality standards (EPA).
Created wetland - areas intentionally developed
from non wetland sites to produce or replace natural
habitat. These wetlands often are the result of
mitigation projects and are waters of the U.S.
(normally). Created wetlands are planned, designed,
constructed and monitored. In addition, their location
must have „naxi.mu�M ben c-fit to the environment and
protected in perpetuity (EPA).
Darcy's law - Darcy's Law describes the flow of
groundwater into, through, and out of a wetland. The
law states that the flow of groundwater is proportional
to the (1) slope of the piezometric surface (hydraulic
gradient,, and the (2) hydraulic conductivity
(pe-rmeatility) of the soil. Darcy's Law is G=(k)(a)(s)
where G=flow rate of ground water (volume/unit time),
k=permeabili!,/ 'ength'unit time), a=cross-sectional
Fall 1992 No. 1 Page 6
area, and s=hydraulic gradient (slope of water table or
piezometric surface).
Deep water - Surface water depth greater than 6.5
feet and lacking vegetation.
Denitrlflcatlon - The conversion of nitrate to
gaseous nitrogen by microbes in anaerobic conditions.
Extreme high water of spring tides - The
highest tide occurring during a lunar month, usually
near the new or full moon.
Extreme low water of spring tides - The lowest
tide occurring during a lunar month, usually near the
new or full moon.
Fetch - The maximum open water distance
unimpeded by intersecting islands, erect vegetation,
or other obstructions.
Fringe wetland - Fringe wetlands along a channel.
The total width of these wetlands is less than three
times the width of the adjacent channel. Fringe
wetlands on a standing body of water occupy less than
one-third the surface area of a standing body of water
at the time of highest annual water.
Functions - The physical, chemical, and biological
process or attributes of a wetland.
Hydroperlod - The seasonal occurrence of flooding
and/or saturated soil conditions.
Interspersion - The degree of intermingling of different
cover types, regardless of.the number of types or their
relative proportions.
Mean. high Water - The average height of high water
in tidal waters over 19 years.
Mean low water - The average height of low water in
tidal waters over 19 yews... -
Nitrogen` fixation - The conversion of gaseous
nitrogen into organic nitrogen forms by bacteria and
blue-green algae...- _
Normal water table level - The average `wat6t table
elevation during the growing season.
Overland flow - Runoff water originating from a
rainstorm or snow melt which flows over the ground
surface.
Pathogens - These are microscopic organisms
(bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, tapeworms eggs,
etc.) that cause human or animal disease. Examples of
these are intestinal bacteria (Shigella) that produce
dysentery and a virus producing the liver infection,
hepatitis.
Plezometric surface - Imaginary surface to which
water rises in wells in a confined aquifer.
Regularly flooded - The tidal water alternately
floods and exposes the land surface at least less once
daily.
Saturated -The substrate is saturated to the surface for
extended periods of time during the growing season,
but surface water is seldom present
Seasonally flooded - Surface water is present for
extended periods especially early in the growing
season, but is absent at the end of the season in most
years. When surface water is absent, the water table is
often near the land surface.
Semipermanently flooded - Surface water
persists throughout the growing season in most years.

CWWT NEWS Volume 1 Fall 1992 No. 1 Page 7
Wren.surface water is absent, the water table is usually Wetlands there our new eco-obligation; so let's all be
at or very near the land surface. sure -
Shallow water - Surface water depth less than 2 that appropriately taught technicians and
feet. Area usually environmentalists prevail
vegetated. Colorado wetlands, it's August & were leavin' but still,
Sheetftow - Water within a wetland which is not Let's carefully reconsider Johnson's Comers, Prof's
confined to a channel. Oswald & Maury & Bill.
Spring tide - The highest high and lowest low tides
during the lunar month. All these non -compliant wetlands - next summer we'll
Sub tidal - The substrate is permanently flooded with sure
tidal water. try to return to CSU, Fort Collins, and see if they're out
Surface water Any water, temporary or permanent, there still.
above the ground surface, observable with an unaided
eye.
Temporarily flooded - Surface water is present
during brief periods during the growing season, but
the water table usually lies well below the soil surface
for most of the season.
Toxicant - Any substance Present in water,
wastewater, or runoff that may kill fish or other aquatic
life, or could be harmful to the public health.
Unconstricted outlet - A surface outlet on a
channel greater than one-third the maximum width of
the area or larger adjoining area or a surface outlet on a
standing body of water greater than one -tenth the
width of the area or larger adjoining area.
WETLAND - Lands transitional between terrestrial
and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at
or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow
water... Wetlands must contain the following three
attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports
aredo minaritiy hyd opayte5, (2-) the .substrate i5
predominantly undrained hydric soil, and (3) the
substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or
covered by shallow water at some time during the
growing season of each year (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service).
CREATIVITY
t=_4
The following libretto is the winner of the Golden
Sludge Award. The inspiration for the composition
came while inhaling fumes from a waste treatment
lagoon. (ed.)
An Ode to Constructed Wetlands
(sung to the tune of "Summertime")
by
The Chicago Bard
Wetlands - where the catfish ain't jumpin'
and the duckweed's not high
We- lands - way up near the Rocky Mountains so high
Wetlands there's our new assertion. to protect them
from James Watt, Ann Gorsuch Buford & Dan Quayle.
With compliant wetland thoughts - were at home now,
with our E- mail, our lost name tags and our appropriate
quilt
But were still thinking of all those coliforms, their
phosphates, overloaded nitrates, and all of that silt.
Constructed Wetlands - where we want good green
algae & aerobic microbes to play
Constructed Wetlands - where we can't afford to see
eutrophism in August,
-nor overbank flooding -and toxic releases in May.
Wetlands, the developers are rich, but V.P. candidate
Gore is good lookin'
so help save our wetland's resources before they've all
been tooken'
Wetlands where new mosquito fish' II soon be jumpin'
• and nvno ycincu..aur aucicu reed
grass' II grow high
so rest for the winter & we'll
return to save the wetlands, bye & bye.
Are you interested in a CWWT T-shirt? Let the editor
know by mail, e-mail, phone. The cost is in the area of
$9-10 per shirt, and is 100% cotton, printed one side
and printing one color. More information with the next
Newsletter.
LET US HEAR FROM YOU
CWWT NEWS !s published quarterly through the Civil
E^ginee^^c Decar—ent a: Colorado State University. tt is a
pro;ac: 4.by the National Science Foundation
Undercraduate Faculty Enhancement Program. Send
ca:nmen:s, intorma::-.n, and news to the Editorial Staff.
John Foerster fedacr), Oceanography (9d), U.S. Nava'
Academy. Annapo' s, Md. 21402.
Rob Harrison on), College of Forest Resources.
U. ersi of 71as'- - ton, Seattle, WA 98195
Ron Lavigne (`=_alure), Department of Plant and So;:
Sciences, Unive:s;ty of Massachusetts, Amherst, MS
e,003.

C
L
DISSEMINATION
Constructed Wetlands Group
Civil Engineering
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523
CWWT
-NEWc,,
CLEANER WATER
FROM NATURE
Volume 1 Fam 1992 No. 1
-
State of CC-1-0rado
Official hlai;

CWWTNEWS
CLEANER WATER
FROM NATURE
Volume 1 WINTER 1993 No. 2
FROM THE TREATMENT PIT
This issue of CWWT NEWS continues our effort to
keep all you constructed wetlanders informed.
Continue to send us information on your classroom
activities, publications, awards, and research. (Thanks
to all who sent information for this issue. You sent a lot.
Ed.).
CONSTRUCTED WRTLANDS
Are you thinking about a small constructed
wetland? Perhaps you have some acreage on your
campus where an outdoor laboratory using a
constructed wetland could benefit your teaching and
research. The following information may help.
By constructing a wetland, you can simulate a
number of physical, engineering, biological and
chemical functions. Quoting the Water Pollution
Control Federation. (1990), "The major physical
determinant of wetlands -hydrology -can be readily
simulated, and a vast variety of wetlands plants can be
successfully propagated. Man-made (constructed)
wetlands, therefore, are relatively simple to design and
build. Although natural and constructed wetlands may
differ widely in their absolute combination of physical,
chemical, and biological characters, they are similar in
macroscopic functions such as organic matter and
nitrogen assimilation potential." Figures 1 and 2 are
schematics of the two major types of constructed
wetlands, the Vegetative Submerged Bed (VSB), and
the Free Water Surface (FWS). Table 1 lists some
examples of the cleansing capacity of constructed and
natural wetlands. For further information read Natural
Systems for Wastewater Treatment
(WPCF 1990).
[I
ED,
SOIL
,ucted
wetland. Water level is in the soil or gravel bed with plant
roots extending to the bottom of the bed. Water flow is
mainly through the bottom soil (modified from WPCF 1990).
WETLAND
ATER
SOIL, SAND,
OR GRAVEL
LINER
NATIVE SOIL"
e Water Surface (FWS) constructed wetland.
the bottom. Water flow is mainly above the bottom soil
(modified from WPCF 1990).

CWWT NEWS Volume I Winter 1993 No. 2 Page 2 1 4
Summary of selected constructed and natural wetlands with some
assimilation information (adapted from WPCF1990)
NAME
TYPEI
AREA
INFI r
HLR2
AVE.
HRT
L:W
BOD5
TSSr3
N7
P
(Ha)
(m3/d)
DEPTH
(days)
RATIO
�
(%r
s(
BURYa
VSB
0.04
10.56
2.64
50.0
18.9
25.0
86
92
70
32
'ANElrG.
VSB
0.0065
3.04
4.58
76.0
16.3
5.3
99
98
94
-
FWS
0.0361
87.2
24.16
47.0
1.9
10.0
51
85
23
FWS
0.132
17.0
1.29
30.0
23.3
83.5
59
61
39
46
N/M
1.0
321.0
3.21
20.0
6.2
0.25
-
-
77
95
N/M
20.0
2778.0
1.39
30.5
22.0
3.75
80
88
88
51
1 - TYPE=Vegetated Submerged Bed (VSB),
a. Boyt et at (1977)
Free Water Surface (FWS),
b. Gersberg et at (1986)
NaturaVMarsh (N/M).
c. Gearheart et at (1985)
2 - Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR).
d Herskowitz et al(1987)
3 - Hydraulic Residence Time (HRT).
e. Tilton and Kadlec (1979)
4 - Length to Width (L:W).
f. Knight (1987)
5 - Biochemical Oxygen Demand.
6 - Total Suspended Solids (TSS).
7 - Ammonia Nitrogen (N).
8 - Total Phosphorous P .
Are you worried about mosquito problems in your new
constructed wetland? Make sure you have good water
flow and no pooling or ponding. Second, check
periodically for mosquito larvae in areas that may seem
stagnant. Third, if you discover mosquito larvae, treat
with B77 (Bacillus thur[Wiensis). See the Fall issue of
the CWWT Newsletter for further information on
mosquitoes.
NEWS ITEMS
(Tell us what you are doing. Ed.)
Are you ready for the final Constructed Wetlands for
Wastewater Treatment Workshop during the summer
of 1993? The dates are July 26-30. See you there
(bring your name tag).
Maury Albertson, watching the snow fall in Fort Collins,
needs suggestions for sites and cooperation for future
CWWT short courses. Let him know. any ideas you
have.
- Taking time from the slopes, Lee Anne Martinez wants
T. us to know she has.a new address. The Pony Express
delivers Lee Anne's mail at the Department of Life
Sciences, University of Southern Colorado, 2200
G .Bonforte Blvd. Pueblo, CO 81001-4901 (719) 549-
r ; . 2743.
Rob Harrison surveyed constructed wetlands in China
after our workshop last summer. The Chinese call them
rice paddies. He did mention that his air conditioned
ox cart did not have a hookup to INTERNET.
.While. sipping his Cuba de .Libre, Luis Perez reports
from Puerto Rico that he has an association with a
consulting firm developing a demonstration -pilot of a
CWWT for either Puerto Rico or the Dominican
Republic. He will send us more information as the
project develops.
Between catching scrod and eating baked beans, Bill
Moeller sends us a super suggestion. Do you have
students, undergraduate or graduate, who are doing
CWWT related projects? How about sending us a
paragraph about their project for the Newsletter? (See
a later section. Ed)
With a glass of vintage zinfandel raised high, Rhea
Williamson reports she is finishing up a project, working
on another, reviewing research on the Hayward marsh
wastewater polishing, and collaborating with a
professor at the University of Washington on the
chelation potential of water. In between, she is
teaching 4 classes. There is no time for the pool hall
this semester. Rhea promises a few short paragraphs
on her research for the next newsletter.
Up to his waist in mating Phragmites, Ron Lavigne
reports he is getting a new CWWT going for Shelbume.
Falls, MA, developing a CWWT system to treat fish
wastes near Amherst, MA, and planning the installation
of a peat moss -reed -canary grass system for a local
landfill. Ron is teaching Constructed Wetlands for
Wastewater Treatment (PL-Soils 597W) at the
University of Massachusetts. Keep your eyes open for
the next issue of the CWWT News because Ron

CWWT NEWS Volume 1 Winter 1993 No. 2 Paee 3
promises to stop picking through the refuse at the local
landfill long enough to tell us about the Shelburne
Falls CWWT.
Just back from watching the coal mines close, Ted
Williams reports that he continues to experiment on
manganese and iron retention. He reports that
manganese effectively retains only as an oxidative
process, while iron retention occurs best under
anaerobic conditions as part of sulfate reduction and
pyrite precipitation. He has a design and is testing a
combined treatment process as a pilot project in a
greenhouse. Modelling of the processes from lab
scale to pilot and eventually field scale continues. The
editors hope Ted will send us at least a crumb of his
results for the next Newsletter.
From the shores of the Chesapeake Bay,
contemplating life after the Defense Department, John
Foerster reports on two areas of research. First, he
reports for those interested in remote sensing that he
has a paper in Remote Sensing of Environment
(Northeast North Pacific Ocean: Surface Current
Pattern Shifts During the Spring, Remote Sens.
Environ. 43:149-159. 1993). Second, John and a
student,Scott Smart,. will present a paper on trace
metals in oyster toadfish at the May meeting of the
American Geophysical Union. This is a proof of
concept study using a proton induced x-ray emissions
(PIXE) system to analyze and quantify trace metals in
biological material. The PIXE is a possible tool to study
trac6 metal concentrations In constructed- wetlands
vegetation. Anybody interested in collaborating on a
research project, let him know.
INFORMATION
(;� :i1�� \I.rir�
V Ai!
Did you know this about cattail marshes? The following
is information from Bray 1962.
&Ross
VISIBLE RADIATION
Mew
w
Anon.
Figure 3. Visible radiation energy budget for a cattail marsh
during the growing season (data from Bray 1962)
"0"
~T441trtNtrw
I,
rrsuTa�.
TOTAL RAMTM
Figure 4. Total radiation energy budget for a cattail marsh
during the growing season (dada from Bray 1962)
STUDENTS CORNER
This is just in from a weary Alain Hebert, a student
trying to keep a chapter ahead of Bill Moeller at
UMASS-Loweq.
WATER BODY
The objective of this research is learning about the
,resistance to mixing between different layers of water.
Water in a shallow pond or constructed wetland may
stratify due to temperature or specific gravity. This
results in behavior Ike the ep►limnion and hypolimnion
in lakes. The question is, what happens to these
layers in shallow water, under weather related
phenomena? Wind is an important factor in the study.
Presently, my work is a literature review.
(Alain. we crusty old CWWTers would Ike some results
and references to publish in the next Newsletter.
Thanks for the information. Ed.)
The following is from Midshipman Sarah Crouse at the
Naval Academy. She reviewed the literature and
submitted information about the importance of
wetlands in the removal of sediment from run-off.
THE IMPACT OF SEDIMENT REMOVAL
BY NON -TIDAL WETLANDS
Besides the location and size of the wetland in relation
to the size of the drainage basin, slope, and .volume of
run-off, vegetation type directly affects the filtering
ability. Plants contribute to the roughness coefficient
which decreases water velocity and. promotes
sedimentation. To demonstrate the importance of the
wetland, Ranwell (1972) developed a regression
equation to assist in estimating the effectiveness of
plants in removing sediments. The egtiMiMis
A=0.643(E) + 0.0462 (P) + 0.00135 "(0 a 1.143

I CWWT NEWS Volume 1 Winter 1993 No. 2 Pant 41, ' 1
where A = accretion, E • mean height of site above sea
level in meters, P - mean height of plants at the site in
centimeters, and B = biomass or average dry weight of
vegetation in grams/meter2. By comparing elevation to
vegetation height to biomass, Ranwell (1972)
suggested that the vegetation height accounted for
70% of the sediment trapping, while the bulk of the
vegetation filtered another 20%. Plants considered
good for this filtration are reed (Phragmites), cattails
(Typha), and tall cordgrass (Spartina). In addition to the
vegetation that trap sediments, wetlands constructed
for sediment removal must have low inlet velocities,
and adequate detention time.
In Sarah's report, there was a reference to The U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers model (Gee1991) that
estimates the size of a basin necessary to achieve a
100% retention of particles larger than 0.125mm (fine
sand). Perhaps you modelers could use this model as
a starting place for estimating sizes of wetlands
needed for soil retention. (Sarah's references are in
the Reference Section. Thanks for the helpful
information. Ed.)
EDUCATION
FROM THE MIND OF RON LAVIGNE
Ron is accumulating and developing overheads and
instructional slides for CWWT teaching. The following
are interesting examples from which you can plot the
evolution of a constructed wetland. (Originals by Ron
re -drawn by the Editor.)
PHRA GMl TES
(Reed) _♦.
TYPHA
(Cattail)--►
SCIRPUS
(Bulrush)—►
JUNCUS
(Rush) —►
CAREX
(Sedge,Y�
Figure 5. Rea* culWaded plants frequently used for
developing a constructed wetland (choose a
pit)•
LOCAL ECOTYPE ADAPTED
TO NTDROLOOKS OF COW
RESISTANT TO
PESTS AND
OXTGER
TRANSPORT
TOLERANCE TO
ADVERSE CUAV
ECONOASCAL TO PROPAGATE
AND MANAGE: LOCALLY
AVAILASLE SUPPLY
SECRETION OF
NOCIDAL
ASIUTY TO
ASSIWLATE
TOLIRANT OF NIGH
CONCENTRA77ONS OF
NUTISENTS AND
Figure 6. Desr&le characteristics for plants used in
wetland treatment systems.

. ,.
I CWWT NEWS Volume 1 Winter 1993 No. 2 PaRe S 1
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
AND 0✓
CONTAMINANTS
SHADING
j TO SUPPRESS
ALGAE GROWTH
SUBSTRATE
FOR MICROBIAL
ACTIVITY ON
OXYGEN
PROVIDING A
TRANSPORT
TO ROOTS AND
SUBSTRATE
FOR MICROBIAL
RHIZOMES
ACTIVITY ON
j
RHIZOMES,
ROOTS
AND STEMS
x
C. ,� 11 ter , FILTRATION
IMPROVE HYDRAULIC POSSIBLE
CONDUCTIVITY OF MICROBIAL
SUBSTRATE EXUDATES
Figure 7. The functions provided by plants in constructed
wetland treatment systems.
SEWAGE
TREATED PNRAGMITES%a OR
EFFL DENT
VERWSLE boors I RN?oYE
"Dow
XounEr +��- a:f�oR
IMPERVIOUS LINER ELOPE !
Figure 8. A typical vegetated submerged bed (VSB)
constructed wetland treatment system.
EDITORIAL
(Do you have a student needing a short project? Do you
have a reference? Help the Newsletter compare the various
types of wastewater treatment from treatment plant to
marsh. . Send information for the next issue of the
Newsletter. Ed.)
The following information is from Natural Systems
for Wastewater Treatment (WPCF1990).
Calculating the means of the data for the three types of
natural systems shows a relative similarity in the
removal of two important treatment efficiency
indicators, total suspended solids and biochemical
oxygen demand.
.J
0
W
a
I
Figure 9. Comparison of the three major types d natural
waste treatment systems (VSB=vegetative
submerged bed FWS-free water surface,
NU -natural marsh) for removal efficiency of total
suspended solids.
J
>
0
M
W
n
0
m
VS8 FWS MAY
Figure 10. Comparison of the three major types of natural
waste treatment systems (VSB-vegetalive
submerged bed, FWS-free water surface,
N/M-mural marsh) for removal efficiency of total
5-day biochemical oxygen demand.
Data means are in Table 2. The data have limits and in
several instances comparative criteria are missing.
Should standards exist for data collection such as
information on the removal efficiency of total
suspended solids (TSS) and 5-day biochemical
oxygen demand (1301)), on hydraulic residence time,
hydraulic loading rate (HLR), inflow volume, treatment
volume, depth, length to width ratio (L:W),
temperature, and location? Is there a central data base
for coliedion and storage of this information? What are
your feelings, ideas, commends. suggestions? Let the
editor know.
Table 2
Mean criteria for the three types of natural
wastewater treatmentsldata from WPCF19901.
TYPE
AREA
Ha
INFO
t d
1 R W
Lrntf
TSS
%
BOD
%
VSB
0.05
38.5
10.0.0
L39.4
79.3
72.4
FWS
3.1
241.4
6.7
1
83.3
68.0
N/M
20.0
2432
1.2.8
84.3
79.5

CWWT NEWS Volume 1
Winter 1993 No: 2 PaRe 6
(Send Rob Harrison information on courses you teach, and
teaching materials you use, or tried and found were not
adequate, that relate to CWWT. We wish to make this
available to all in the future. Ed.)
While waiting for a sunny day In Seattle, Rob Harrison
sends this about his courses. During the Fall quarter,
take UHF475, Wetland Ecology. Learn about
wetland formation, plants, soil, hydrology and CWWT.
Students of various disciplines take the course. Kem
Ewing and Rob Harrison teach the course. During the
winter quarter, Rob offers-FRM507, Beneficial Use
of Organic Wastes. The emphasis is on utilization
of aqueous, relatively non -hazardous waste (sewage
sludge, wastewater, and compost) as nutrient and
organic matter sources. Use of these wastes is for
increasing the productivity and the value of biological
systems with the goal of optimizing treatment. This
course is new and Rob promises to let us know more
about it in the next Newsletter.
Ted Williams, taking time out from retaining his metals,
reports that at Penn State University his CWWT
expertise is useful in the course Aquatic Ecology.
His CWWT emphasis is on acid mine drainage and
lectures on mitigation, metal removal, chemical and
microbial processes, as well as construction and
operation. He finds the students' interest increases
when they see how to build a wetland from scratch,
and that they work. - - -
SOURCES OF
INFORMATION
. Y �
�v
(Information sources of scientific and contemporary
nature. Send us input for this section. Ed.)
I. BROCHURES, MAPS, REPORTS
From Genero Lopez, really seeing water flow down the
Rio Grande, sends us information on CWWT adivites in
southwest Texas. He sends information that the
county engineer in Brownsville, Andrew Cueto, is at
the forefront of CWWT activity. The following is some
of Mr. Cueto's work
1. The applicability of Natural Systems to
Wastewaer Treatment and Water.
Reuse.
2. La Apkacion De Sistemas Naturales Para El
Tratamiento Del drenage Y EI Reuso Del
Aqua.
3. Development of Criteria for the Design and
Constriction of Engineered Aquatic treatment
Units in Texas.
Give Genaro a call (at 210:544-8289 or FAX at
210:544-8988 to get an address If you want a copy of
these papers. (The editor has copies of the papers.)
Taking a break from snow boarding Lee Anne Martinez
suggests we read about Dr. Bill Wolverton and his
CWWT ideas. Burke, W.K. 1993. A green solution to
water pollution. The Rotarlan (Feb):16-17. Lee
Anne, also, suggests that Dr. Wolverton might be an
excellent choice for an invited speaker at the workshop
this coming summer.
Contemplating the movement of nutrients from soil to
Spartina, Steve Broome reports that there is a new
CWWT research facility at the TVA. For more
information, contact the Agricultural Research
Department of TVA at 205:386-2201. Steve suggests
that Dr. Roland Hauck of the National Fertilizer
Research Center, at TVA is a possiblity for an invited
speaker for next summer's workshop.
II. COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Thinking of adding aquaculture to your to CWWT? The
following are a couple of programs that might help.
1. WATER0 ( pond water quality management).
2. FIELD RECORDS.
3. GROWCATS (catfish pond culture).
4. FISHY.
The programs are available from the Extension
Computer Applications and Services Department,
Mississippi Cooperative Extension Service, Wississo
State University, P.O. Box 5446, Mississippi State, MS
39762. The cost is $5.00 1 you supply your disks. The
programs are IBM PC or Corrpatble running DOS.
Want a Cheap way to protect your IBM PC or
Compatible (DOS operating system) from most
viruses? The following Is a poor person's scheme to
prevent viruses from crashing your operating system.
FROM THE DESK OF SANDY FILTER
PRIVATE SCIENTIST
1. Boot computer and at the C> OR C:b(DRIVE
PROMPT) open the directory,(C>DIR[ ]), locate the
files and do the following

I
.a r
CWWT NEWS Volume 1
5.0 C> DOS 3.2
C> I C>
Note: Qo, or C:b IS THE HARD DRIVE PROMPT
IS A SPACE (put a space here)
[ ] IS THE ENTER KEY (strike the enter
key here
2. If the COMMAND COM (DOS 5.0) file is not in the
C> directory, then open the DOS directory, locate the
file, and do the following
C> CD\DOS[ ]
C> ATTRIB^+R^COMMAND COM[ ]
3. To view your handy work be in the directory where
you changed the file (MAIN DIRECTORY C> OR C>
CD\DOS) AND TYPE THE COMMAND
C>ATTRIB[ ] (LOOK FOR THE FILE(S)
WITH THE R) - DOS 5.0
C:\> ATTRIB^C *.SYS (OR .COM)[]
-DOS 3.2
4. If you need to change these boot files, bad a new
version, etc., just use the same commands and
instead of +R (READ ONLY) change to -R (WRITE).
The purpose is to prevent a virus writing to your
operating system. This is a temporary fix (replace in
the future with a virus protection program or Norton
Utilities). It you need help, see your DOS Manual
under Attribute.
III. ORGANIZATIONS
International Assoclation on Water
lift, Specialist Group on the Use
of Macrophytes in Water Pollution
Control.
This just in from the palatial veranda of Steve Broome.
Dr. Hans Brix (Secretary/Newsletter Editor),
Department of Plant Ecology, University of Aarhus, 68
Nordlandsvej, DK-8240 Risskov Denmark is the
contact to join this group. The group consists of
approximately 450 members from 58 countries. They
publish a Newsletter on wetland treatment systems.
The group Chairman is Dr. Robert H. Kadlec of the
University of Michigan, and the North America
Coordinator is Dr. Don Hammer of TVA
IV. PUBLICATIONS
Between contemplating the chelation potential of
water and the end of the drought in California, Rhea
Williamson sends the following:
Brodie, G.A. 1990. Treatment of Acid Drainage Using
Constructed Wetlands Experiences of the
Tennessee Valley Authority. pp. 77-83. In:
Winter 1993 No. 2 Page 7 J
Proceedings of the 1990 National
Symposium on Mining. OES Oublications
U. of Kentudry, 302 Mining Laboratory,
Lexington, KY 40506-0046 (606:257-3343).
Brodie, GA., D.A. Hammer, and D.A. Tomijanovich.
1988. Constructed Wetlands for Acid
Drainage Control in the Tennessee Valley. pp.
325-331. in: Annual Meeting of the
American Society of Surface Mining
and Reclamation. Vol.1. U.S. Bureau of
Mines, I.C. 9183. Pittsburgh, PA For a copy
contact S. Williams, U.S. Bureau of Mines,
P.O. Box 18070, Pittsburgh PA 15236
[phone].
Hedin, R.S., M. Hyman, and R.W. Hammack 1988.
pp. 382-388. In: Annual Meeting of the
American Society of Surface Mining
and Reclamation. Vol.1. U.S. Bureau of
Mines, I.C. 9183. Pittsburgh, PA. Fora copy
contact S. Williams, U.S. Bureau of Mines,
P.O. Box 18070, Pittsburgh PA 15236
[phone].
Hedin, R.S. 1989. Treatment of Coal Mine Drainage
with Constnxted Wetlands. pp. 349-362. In:
Wetlands Ecology and Conservation:
Emphasis In Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania
Academy of Science Easton PA. For copies
contact R. Hedin, U.S: Bureau of Mines, P.O.
Box 18070, Pittsburgh PA 15236
[phone].
Hedin, R.S. ands R.W. Naim. 1990. Sizing and
Performance of Constructed Wetlands: Case
Studies. pp.385-392. In: Proceedings of
the 1990 Mining and Reclamation
Conference and Exhibition. Vol.11. For a
copy contact West Virginia University
Publication Services, Communications
Building, Morgantown WV 26506
[phone].
Kepler, D.A. 1990. Wetland Sizing, Design, and
Treatment Effectiveness for Coal Mine
Drainage. pp.403-408. In: Proceedings of
the 1990 Mining and Reclamation
Conference and Exhibition. Vol.11. For a
copy contact West Virginia University
Publication Services, Comnvinications
Building, Morgantown WV 26506 at
[phone].
Mike Carr, just in from shoveling his way to work, sends
a couple of references for you to get in touch
with (from Lewis Publishers, 2000 Coporate
Blvd., Boca Raton, FL 33431, 800-272-7737):
Lyons, J.G. Practical Handbook for Wetlands
identification and Delineation.
ISBN#0-87371-590-X.
Moshid, GA. Constructed Wetlands for Water Qualdy
Improvements. ISBN#0-87371-550-0.
EPA. Created and Natural Wetlands for Controlling
Nonpoint Sources of Pollution. ISBN#0-
878371-943-3.

CCWWT NEWS Volume 1
Winter 1993 No. 2 Pade 8 - J
Kentula, M.E. An Approach to Improving Decision
Aust, M.W., R. Lea, and J.D. Gregory. 1991. Removal
Making in Wetland Restoration and Creation.
of Floodwater Sediments by a Clearcut
ISBN#0-87371-937-9.
Tupelo -Cypress Wetland. Water Resources
Bulletin 27:111-116.
Have some questions on reconstructing a habitat?
Greeson, P.E., J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.).1978.
John Foerster reports that the following books have
Wetland Functions and Values: Time State of
some good ideas.
Our Understanding. Proc. Nall. Syn p. on
Buckley,G.P.(ed).1989.Biological Habitat
Wetlands. American Water Resources
Reconstruction. from Belhaven Press, 25
Association, Minneapolis. 674pp.
Floral Streer, London WC2E 9DS, Great
Gee, M.D.1991. Predicting deposition Patterns in
Britian. A book on the assumptions and
Small Basins. Tech. Pap. No.133. U.S. Army
ecological principles underlying biological
Corps of Engineers, Alexandria, Va.
habitat reconstruction. It has awide range of
McIntyre, S.C., and J.W. Naney. 1991. Sediment
practical and experimental techniques.
Deposition in a Forested Inland Wetland with a
PERL. 1990. A Manual for Assessing Restored
steep -famed Watershed. Jrl. Soil Water
and Natural Coastal Wetlands. Pacific
Conserv. 46:64-66.
Estuarine Research Laboratory, San Diego
Phillips, J.D. 1989. Fluvial Sediment Storage in
State University. Order from Dr. Joy Zedler,
Wetlands. Water Res. Bull. 25:867-873.
PERL, SDSU, San Diego, CA 92182-0057 for
Ranwel , D.S.1972. Ecology of Salt Marshes and Sand
$10.00 payable to PERL acct.#96885.
Dunes. Chapman and Hall, London. 258pp.
V. REFERENCES
The following are the literature citations in Table 1.
Boyt, R.L., S.E. Bayley, and J. Zottek, Jr.1977.
removal of nutrients from treated municipal
wastewater by wetland vegetation. J. Water
Pollution Control Federation 49*789-799.
'Gearheart, RAJ. Williams, H. Holbrook, and M.
Ives.1985. City of Arcata Marsh Pilot Project.
Wetland Bacteria Speciation and Harvesting
Effects on Effluent Quality. Environmental
Resources Engineering Department,
Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.
Gersberg, R.M., V.G. Elkins, S.R. Lyon, and C.R.
Goldman.1986. Role of aquatic plants in
wastewater treatment by artificial wetlands.
Water Resources 20:363-368.
Herskowitz, J., S. Black, and W. Lewandowski. 1987.
Listowel artificial marsh treatment project.
p.237-246. In: K.R. Reddy and W.H. Smith
(eds.).Aquatic Plants for Water Treatment and
Resource Recovery. Magnolia Pub. Inc.
Orlando, FI.
Knight, R.L. 1987. Performance of a natural wetland
treatment system for wastewater
management. J. Water Pollution Control
Federation 59:746-756.
Tilton, D.L., and R.H. Kadlec.1979. The utilization of
freshwater wetland for nutrient removal from
secondarily treated wastewater effluent. J.
Environmental Quality 8:328-334.
WPCF.1990. Natural Systems for Wastewater
Treatment. Manual of Practice FDA6. Water
Pollution Control Federation, Alexandria VA.
The following are some Literature citations contributed
by Sarah Crouse.
Athanas, C.1988. Nutrient and Sediment Removal by
Freshwater, Non -tidal Wetlands: An Overview
of the Important Scientific Literature. Report
for the Maryland Department of Natural
Resources. Water Resources Adm`nistration.
OTHER SOURCES
Bray, J.R.1962.Estimates of energy budget for a
Typha (cattail)marsh.Sclence 36:1119-1120.
Burke, W.K.1993. A Green Solution to Water
Pollution. Rotarian. (Feb):16-17.
Vf. CONFERENCE
and Reclamation.
WHEN: May 16-19, 1993
WHERE: Spokane, WA
INFORMATION: Contact Benjamin A. Zamora, Natural
Resource Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman
WA 99164-6410. 509.335-6166, FAX 509:335-7862.
CWWT GLOSSARY
C WT
(Send us terms and defuutbns for this sedan. ed.)
HRT-Hydrauk residence time in days (natural
wetland)
HRT=o x V/Q
HRT- hydraulic residence time (days), V. wetland volume at
given stage (m3), o - average inflow rate (rm3/day)e - void
fraction.
HRT-Hydraulic residence time in days (constructed
wetland -Free Water Surface)
HRT=(10000)(H) (A)e/Q
HRT- hydraulic residence time (days), A - wetland area (Ha)
Q - flow rate (m3/day), e - void fraction, H - water depth (m).
Department at Colorado State University. It 4 a project funded by the
National Science Foundation Undergraduate Faculty Enhancement
Program. Send comments, information, and news to r* Editorial Staff.
John Fwrstar (editor), Oceanography (9d), U.S. Naval Academy,
Annapolis, Md. 21402.
Rob Harrison (education), Cottage of Forest Resocnces, University of
Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
Ron Lav'rgnmh
s (leatu , Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University
of Massa seas, Aerst. MS 01003.

INFORMATION PACKET C

Wastewater Treatment Plant Operators Annual School
BASIC BIOLOGY -- GRADE III
I. Basic Processes of Life -- are to obtain energy and carbon for growth and
maintenance.
A. Photosynthesis -- the process by which green plants and certain anaerobic
bacteria utilize the energy of captured sunlight for the fixation
(reduction) of carbon dioxide into organic carbon.
1. The energy is used to make the carbon to carbon bond (reduce CO2)
energy Af
-c-c-c-c-
2. The light capturing component is chlorophyll, the green pigment
in plants.
3. Overall equation
Chlorophyl t
. - 6 CO2 + 6H2O light
B. Energy Extraction Processes
CH 0 +60
6 12 6 2�.:.:._.:-..
major source to
atmosphere..
1. Aerobic Respiration -- Oxidation of organic carbon compounds to
CO2 and H2O using molecular oxygen as the oxidant
Organic Carbon + 02 -} CO2 + H2O + Energy
Most living organisms are aerobic. This type of metabolism yields
the most energy per mole of organic compounds. Therefore, these
organisms are usually the fastest growers. They predominate in
secondary wastewater treatment and clean streams. Their products
are not odiferous.
2. Fermentation =- Under some circumstances normally aerobic organisms
can live on
oxygen (facultative organisms) by using a more.
oxidized organic compound to oxidize.a more reduced one. This
yields much less energy than aerobic respiration since some carbon
to carbon bond energy remains in the product.
a. reduced organic compound + oxidized organic compound +
reduced organic product + CO2 + H2O + energy
b. The product compounds are short chain acids, aldehydes, and
ketones. These are often odiferous; therefore, fermentative
(low oxygen conditions are to be avoided.

r � r
3. Anaerobic Respiration -- Under low or zero oxygen conditions certain
organisms may use an ion (SO4, NO3, CO3) to oxidize an organic
compound.
a. Organic compound
NO3 N2
SO4 —� H 2 S
CO_ CH4
+ CO2 + H2O + Energy
b. Denitrification is a nitrogen removal process carried out by
many facultative organisms. We also use this in sewers or
overloaded systems i.e., add nitrate (NO 3--> N2).
c. Sulfate reduction (SO --+ H2S) is major source of H2S (rotten egg)
odor in wastewater systems. Results from anaerobic conditions.
d. Carbon dioxide reduction (methane formation) is responsible for
the success of anaerobic digestion (CO CH4).
4. Chemolithotrophy -- certain organisms obtain energy from the
oxidation of inorganic compounds. They get carbon for "cellular
constituents from CO2 (like photosynthesis only energy does not
come from light).
a. Nitrification
NH3 + 02 --> NO- (Nitrosomonas)
NO2 + 02--*NO 3 (Ni trobacter)
This type of metabolism is responsible for the nitrogenous
oxygen demand (NOD). This may decrease stream dissolved oxygen
well below standards. Therefore, nitrification is often being
designed into wastewater treatment plants. Requires oxygen and
long SRT since nitrifiers grow very slowly. Note also that if
nitrification takes place in secondary unit and the size or
operation of the final clarifier allows dissolved oxgyen to '
reach zero, denitrification may take place in the final settling
tank. The sludge may rise on bubbles of nitrogen gas -- rising
sludge.
b. Sulfide oxidation
H2S + 2 0 � H2SO4 (Thiobacillus)
This often occurs in systems where there is a change from
anaerobic to aerobic (for example,.long force main drop ing
into gravity line). The resultant H2SO4 (sulfuric acid causes
corrosion of certain pipe materials.

c. Growth
1. General or Net Growth
Ot = uN - KdN
Net Growth Growth Death
and
N = number of bacteria
t = time
u = specific growth rate, 1/t
Kd = specific death rate, 1/t
u=
umax S
K +S
s
lima:, maximum growth rate
S = growth limiting substrate concentration
2. Batch Growth
r43
N
s4a�-la n ar.V a •l
E nclo5 ev%ocLs
f+;„e
1Qg: S " KS
-� 0
Kd -} 0
acclimatizing or getting larger

Exponential S >> Ks
p -} max
Kd -s 0
growing very fast; disperse growth
Stationary or Endogenous
S Ks
s `max
u 2
Kd_u
grow very slowly, produce sticky
extracellular polymers (glue); convert S
and cells to CO2 + H2O
decline or death
S « Ks
u+0
Kd -} u
3.. Treatment Systems Growth and Maintenance
1. Want most cells to be respiring (maintenance) rather
than growing.
2. If growing make more sludge i.e. cells.
3. Want to adher to rocks (attached growth system) or
flocculate (suspended growth system). Both require
extracellular polymers.

f
II. Secondary Wastewater Treatment Microbiology
A. Requirements
1. Food = waste BOD or S from Monod equation
2. Enough oxygen
3. Maximum active biomass (microorganisms) or N from General growth
equation
B. Activated Sludge - Suspended growth type
1. Bacterial floc formation is required from this type of treatment
(maximum biomass)
a. The aerator has an artifically high concentration of bacteria.
This is maintained by recycle (return sludge), but to be
recycled bacteria must settle in final tank. This settling
requires floc (more dense than water).
2. Floc forming bacteria are largely -Zoo lea ramigera. Filamentous
bacteria are also i ortant if they are internal to the floc
(structural strength . On the other hand, if they.are external,::.
_Tn fe e noA rz.X f?f Yn 0-�
they increase resistance to settling. This is known as a"bulking
condition (poorly compacted sludge; SVI 100). Often an increase
in aeration or a decrease in organic loading will cure bulking.
If D.O. is high; waste sludge. F:M too low.
3. Growth Rate -- In order to stay in the system the bacteria must
grow faster than the flow through time + the time in return sludge.
Otherwise, they will wash out. SRT or MCRT are measures of the
amount of time allowed for growth. If these are long, slow growers,
e.g., nitrifiers may exist. Normally SRT is set so that only a quite
restricted group of important species will exist.
4. Protozoa -- some bacteria grow free in the water i.e. not floc. -These
bacteria don't settle and, therefore, would be BOD in effluent. But if
protozoa consume these the effluent is clean.
a. Free living ciliates (Paramecium) consume free living bacteria
and are indicative of hu a numbers of such bacteria. Why?
Paramecium grows slowly ?wash out) unless there is a huge source
of food (free living bacteria). Huge numbers of free living
bacteria mean relatively fewer bacteria in floc; therefore, poor
activated sludge.
b. Stalked ciliates (Vortecella) attach to floc and consume free
living bacteria. Since they are attached to floc, they settle and
are returned. Thus, their presence allows "clean" effluent and
is indicative of good activated sludge.

C. Trickling Filter (attached growth type)
1. Organisms must be attached to medium. More surface are, more organisms.
2. Types of microorganisms -- fungi and many bacteria including Zooglea
ramigera.
3. Slime thickness. O Sl�rn�
� J
Slime must be quite thin for maximum activity.
Is kept thin by turbulence and grazing.
• 4. Grazers -- many protozoa, -nematodes, and Psychoda-larvae.
III. Anaerobic Digestion' `
A. Acid Formation
Complex organics — 0 small organic acids_+ CO2 +.H+ + H2
B. Methane Formation
small organic acids-* CH4 + CO2 (consumes H+); 70% .
CO2 + H2 -� CH4 + H2O 30%
C. Upset (souring) occurs when either methane formers die (.fastidious organisms)
so that acid (H+) is not removed (low pH) or when acid formers make more acid
than methane formers can use (usually shock load).
D. Cure? Decrease feed, increase mixing, add lime (don't over lime) or bicarbonate.
IV. Ecological Consequences of Water Pollution
A. Oxygen Sag
1. Until the present time most wastewater treatment has been for the
purpose of:
a. Preserving the oxygen resource of the stream
b. Preserving the aesthetic quality of the stream

2. Dissolved oxygen decreases below the outfall until some critical
value is reached; then D.O. increases. At the same time, the
BOD decreases.
THE ENVIRONMENT
201
z is'
016
J_ 141
,E 12!
10 B�OCFIEMI
a $ OXYGEN DE
rn 6 DISSOLVED ISSOLVED
q OXYGEN OXYGEN
a 2
24 12 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108
MILES
• FIGURE 1. The assumptions in the hypothetical pollution case under discussion
are a stream flow of 100 cfs, a discharge of raw sewage from a community of 40,000,
and a water temperature of 25'C, with typical variation of dissolved oxygen and BOD.
3. The concentration of oxygen is a function of the rate of
deoxygenation and reaeration.
THE ENVIRONMENT
20
z la
3 16
14
12
0
30
W.
BIOCHEMICAL
8
XYGEN DEMAND
6
DISSOLVED
DEOXYGENATIO14
DES
q
OXYGEN
REAERATiON RATE
OXYGEN
Q
^
2 1
0 1 2 3 4 S. 6 7
8 9
DAYS
24 12
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84
96 108
MILES
• FIGURE 2. The dissolved oxygen concentration in the stream is partially de.
stroyed by the pollution load. Full depletion is avoided by ►eaeration processes.

Y .
B. Eutrophication -- well nourished, abundant algal growth.
1. Law of the minimum -- the growth of any microorganism will be limited
by the supply of that factor which is required for growth and present
in the least concentration relative to the requirement.
2. Nitrogen and phosphorus are most often growth limiting chemicals, in
turbid waters light is often limiting.
3. Eutrophication is a problem in lakes, reservoirs, or slow rivers which
receive wastewater effluents containing N and P or runoff (agricultural
or urban) which contain N and P.
4. Presently eutrophication is controlled by the removal of P from
wastewater. This only works if the other non -point sources are
insignificant.

Outline for CWWT Lectures
Michael Richard
Lecture 1: Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Microbiology.
I. Bacteria.
A. aerobic heterotrophic bacteria.
1. single and biofilm bacteria.
2. floc -forming bacteria.
3. filamentous bacteria.
B. aerobic autotrophic bacteria.
1. nitrifying bacteria.
2. sulfide oxidizing bacteria.
C. anaerobic bacteria.
1. nitrate reducing bacteria (denitrifiers).
2. sulfate reducing bacteria (sulfide producers).
3. organic acid and methane producers.
4. photosynthetic anaerobic bacteria.
II. Fungi and Yeast.
III. Algae.
A. green algae.
B. blue green bacteria.
IV. Higher life forms.
A. protozoa.
B. invertebrates.
Lecture 2: Major Microorganism Induced Water Chemistry Changes in Aerobic
Wastewater Treatment.
I. Organic carbon (BOD) removal.
A. aerobic mineralization to biomass and COz.
B. anaerobic production of organic acids and methane.
C. inorganic carbon removal by algal growth and impact on pH.
II. Nitrogen removal.
A. urea degradation.
B. nitrogen incorporation into biomass.
C. nitrification.
D. denitrification.
E. ammonia volatilization.
III. Phosphorus removal.
A. phosphorus incorporation into biomass.
B. biological phosphorus removal.
C. phosphorus precipitation.
IV. Sulfur removal.
A. sulfide production.
B. sulfide oxidation.

page 2
Lecture 3: Major Microorganism Induced Problems in Aerobic Wastewater
Treatment.
I. Activated Sludge.
A. filamentous and nonfilamentous bulking.
B. filamentous foaming.
C. nitrification - lox pH.
D. denitrification - floating sludge.
E. sulfide toxicity.
II. Lagoons.
A. organic overloading and organic acid production.
B. low dissolved oxygen and sulfide production.
C. algae overgrowth.
III. Wetlands.
A. solids removal and production by surface and subsurface systems.
B. sulfide production and odors.
C. production of ammonia and phosphorus in wetlands effluents.'

Presented at the USEPA's Natural/Constructed Wetlands Treatment Systems
Workshop, Denver, CO, September, 1991.
TROUBLESHOOTING THE AERATED AND FACULTATIVE WASTE TREATMENT LAGOON
by
Michael Richard, Ph.D. Dick Bowman, P.E.
Dept. Environmental Health and Colorado Dept. of Health
Colorado State University Water Quality Control Division
Fort Collins, CO 80523 222 S. 6th St., Room 232
Grand Junction, CO 81501
INTRODUCTION
Lagoon treatment is a simple, cost-effective method to handle disposal of
domestic 'wastewater most often used by small communities. As of 1980,
approximately 7000 waste stabilization lagoons were in use in the U.S. (1).
Advantages of lagoons are that they are relatively inexpensive; they are
simple to operate (compared to other waste treatment methods) they -withstand
shock loadings better than other biological treatment processes (for example,
wastes from a campground or resort); and they remove nitrogen and phosphorus
in addition .to carbonaceous materials (biochemical oxygen demand or` BOD).
However, many variables affect the quality of lagoon effluents and, at times,
effluent quality is not suitable for discharge to the environment.
Waste stabilization lagoons involve a number of physical, chemical and
microbiological processes. Wastewater is held in relatively shallow basins
for a time period sufficient to permit stabilization of wastewater organics
(BOD), to cause die -away of pathogens (disinfection), and to allow
percolation, evaporation or controlled discharge of the treated water.
Lagoons duplicate in an accelerated fashion the natural purification processes
that normally occur"in natural waters. An additional function of lagoons,
often overlooked, is sludge storage for later removal and disposal. Lagoon
systems in common use can be classified as aerated or non -aerated
(facultative) .
This paper will present a general overview of domestic waste treatment
lagoons and a discussion of lagoon microbiology, cold weather operation, fate
of conventional pollutants in lagoons, disinfection, and a discussion of
operational problems and their causes.
Facultative Lagoons
Facultative lagoons are usually 4-8 feet deep and have an upper aerobic
layer overlying a -deeper anaerobic layer (1). The aerobic layer is quite
important in maintaining an oxidizing environment in which gases escaping the
lower anaerobic layer are oxidized, - preventing odors. Facultative lagoons
rely on natural surface aeration and algal photosynthesis to supply the oxygen
needed for aerobic bacterial stabilization of wastes. The organic loading
rate, limited by natural aeration capacity, is usually 15-50 lbs.
BODa/acre/day. Hydraulic detention times vary from 5 to 30 days in temperate
climates, and to 180 days in cold climates (1).

4
1 � ,
Aerobic stabilization of BOD by aerobic bacteria occurs in the upper
oxygenated layer, supplied with oxygen at least partly by algal
photosynthesis, while BOD is converted to methane in the lower anaerobic
layer by methane bacteria. There is a symbiosis between bacteria and algae in
this process and both microbial components are necessary for successful
operation.
Facultative lagoons are the easiest type of lagoon system to operate, but
there are limits to their performance. Effluent BOD5 values range from 20 to
80 mg/L and -suspended solids from 30 to 150 mg/L (1)(mostly algae). A large
surface area is required to keep organic loadings in a suitable range. Organic
overloading leads to complete anaerobic conditions which causes odors and high
effluent BODa values. Facultative lagoons frequently have seasonally poor
performance and odor production, usually in the early spring in cold climates
that have wintertime ice cover.
Aerated Lagoons
Mechanical aeration supplements or, replaces algal photosynthesis as the
source of oxygen for waste stabilization in an aerated lagoon,. which
increases the cost of operation but decreasesthe size (and cost) of the
system. The allowable organic loading is higher for aerated lagoons than for
facultative lagoons (in the range 50-200 lbs. BOD/acre/day on a comparative
basis). The oxygenation requirement frequently used is 1.5 lbs. oxygen/lb. of
applied BODa, however, the actual oxygen required may be 1.75 - 2.50 lbs.
oxygen/lb. BODa applied when the sludge oxygen demand is included (2). In
Colorado, the allowable organic loading to an aerated lagoon is based on
supplying 1.5 pounds of oxygen per pound of BOD per day and supplying this
oxygen in a 16 hour period (which is 2.25 lbs. oxygen/lb. BOD5). Aeration is
provided by brush aerators, propeller pumps or by rising air bubbles from a
diffused air system. Many aerated lagoons evolved from overloaded facultative.
lagoons. Properly designed aerated lagoons are 8-12 feet deep which allows
adequate room for sludge storage at the bottom of the lagoon below the
influence of mixing. One problem with upgrading a facultative lagoon to an
aerated one is the lack of sludge storage capacity in a shallow basin.
Algae may or may not play a major role in oxygenation of aerated lagoons,
depending on the organic loading rate and mixing conditions. Continuous
mixing disfavors algal growth due to blockage of light by the stirred solids.
If algal photosynthesis is desired, then intermittent mixing should be used.
Aerated lagoons operated at higher organic loading approach activated sludge
in function, however, with less biomass present (100-300 mg/L dry weight
biomass). True activated sludge units involve biomass (sludge) recycle, which
increases the biomass concentration to 1000-4000 mg/L.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations in a facultative or aerated lagoon may
vary significantly over a 24-hour period as shown in Figure 1 (modified from
reference 3). Dissolved oxygen concentration can be 200-300 % of saturation
at mid -afternoon due to algal photosynthesis. At night, dissolved oxygen
concentration drops to a minimum, due to bacterial and algal respiration.
Odor production would be most expected at night. A single dissolved oxygen
measurement at mid -day is not reliable to judge whether aeration is
sufficient. If supplemental mechanical aeration is used, it is most
appropriate to run this at night during the lowest oxygen period. Note that
2

operation of mechanical aeration during the daytime when the lagoon is
supersaturated in oxygen due to algae growth may actually strip oxygen to the
atmosphere.
The Microbiology of Waste Treatment Lagoons
Microorganisms found in aerated and facultative lagoons are more diverse
than observed in many other biological treatment processes. Both aerobic and
anaerobic bacteria are involved as well as algae and some higher life forms
such as rotifers, daphnia and insect larvae.
The aerobic bacteria that occur are similar to those found in other
treatment processes such as activated sludge. Freely dispersed, floc -forming
and filamentous bacteria occur. All function similarly to oxidize organic
carbon (BOD) to produce CO2 and new bacteria (sludge).
Anaerobic bacteria that commonly occur are involved in methane formation
(methane bacteria) and in sulfide oxidation (sulfur bacteria). Anaerobic
methane formation involves two different groups of anaerobic bacteria that
function together to convert organic materials to methane via a -two step
process:
acid-forming bacteria —this diverse group of bacteria converts organic
materials under anaerobic conditions to simple alcohols and organic acids
such as acetic, propionic and butyric. These bacteria are hardy and
occur over a wide pH range.
methane forming bacteria - this limited group of bacteria converts acetic
acid under anaerobic conditions to methane. These are environmentally
sensitive and have a narrow pH range of pH 6.8-7.4.
Note that the product of the acid formers (acetic acid) becomes the substrate
for the methane producers. A problem at times exists where the acid formers
overproduce, lowering the pH below where the methane bacteria can function (a
PH < 6.5). This can stop methane formation and lead to a build-up of sludge
with a low pH. In an anaerobic fermentor, this is called a "stuck digestor".
The anaerobic sulfur bacteria, represented by about 17 genera, oxidize
reduced sulfur compounds (HzS) using light energy to produce sulfur and
sulfate. All are either strict anaerobes or microaerophillic. Most common
are Chromatium, Thiocvstis and Chlorobium which can grow. in profusion and give
a lagoon a pink or red color. Their finding is most often an indication of
organic overloading and anaerobic conditions. Conversion of odorous sulfides
to sulfur and sulfate by these sulfur bacteria is a significant odor control
mechanism in facultative and anaerobic lagoons, and can be desirable.
Occasionally, sulfur bacteria occur in a lagoon due to treatment of high
sulfate wastewater, not related to organic loading.
Algae are aerobic organisms that are photosynthetic and grow with simple
inorganic compounds (CO2, NH3, NOa, PO4) using light as an energy source.
These are desirable in lagoons as they generate oxygen needed by bacteria for
waste stabilization. Three major groups occur in lagoons, based on their
chlorophyll type: brown algae (diatoms), green algae, and red algae. The
predominant algal species at any given time in a lagoon is dependent on growth
3

conditions, particularly temperature, organic loading, oxygen status and
nutrient availability.
A fourth type of "algae" common to lagoons is the cyanobacteria or blue-
green bacteria. These organisms grow much as the true algae, with the
exception that most species can fix atmospheric nitrogen. Blue-green bacteria
often bloom in lagoons and some species produce odorous and toxic by-products.
Algae can bloom in lagoons at any time of the year (even under the ice),
however, a succession of algal types often is observed in lagoons over the
season. A common pattern is:
Season Growth Conditions Main Organisms
winter low light,
low temperature
none
spring high light,
low temperature
diatoms
summer high light,
high temperature
•green algae
fall low light,
high temperature
blue-green
bacteria
Algae can grow to such an extent in lagoons (bloom) that they consume for
photosynthesis all of the carbon dioxide and bicarbonate present, leaving
only carbonate as the lagoon buffering species. This causes the pH of the
lagoon to become alkaline. PH values of 9.5 or greater are common in lagoons
during algal blooms which can lead to lagoon effluent pH violations (in most
states this is pH = 9). It should be noted that an increase in the lagoon pH
caused by algal growth can be beneficial. Natural disinfection of pathogens in
lagoons is enhanced at higher pH. Phosphorus removal by natural chemical
precipitation is greatly enhanced at pH values greater than pH = 8.5. In
addition, ammonia stripping to the atmosphere is.enhanced at higher pH values
(NH3 is strippable, not NH.`).
Many higher life forms develop in lagoons. These include protozoa and
eucaryotic organisms such as rotifers, daphnia, chironomides (midge larvae)
and mosquito larvae. These organisms play a role in waste purification by
feeding on bacteria and algae and promoting flocculation and settling of
particulate material. Rotifers and daphnia are particularly important in
controlling algae overgrowth and these often "bloom" when algae concentrations
are high. Mosquitoes grow in lagoons where shoreline vegetation is not
removed and these may cause a nuisance and public health problem. Culex
tarsalis, the vector of Western Equine Encephalitis in the western U.S., grows
well in waste lagoons (1).
Cold Weather Operation
Temperature controls the growth and activity of microorganisms, both
bacteria and algae, and the stabilization rate of organic wastes. Microbial
growth and waste stabilization follow the Q10 rule: the reaction rate doubles
or halves for each 10C temperature change. Necessary temperatures for
important microorganisms in lagoons are (1):
4

heterotrophic bacterial oxidation of BOD 5-40C
algal growth and oxygen production 5-40C
anaerobic fermentation ) 14C
These conditions are not always met in colder climates, where lagoon
surface freezing occurs. At lagoon temperatures of less than 5C, lagoons
function merely to store wastewater organics. Due to this, discharge from
lagoons in colder climates may need to be seasonal, with effluent being
discharged once or twice per year when effluent quality is satisfactory.
Optimum lagoon performance in colder climates occurs in the summer and fall,
when lagoon temperatures are highest. In geographical areas with a cold
climate and wintertime lagoon ice cover, influent BOD may not be properly
oxidized by bacteria due to cold temperature and is merely stored in the
lagoon. The oxygen demand in the system in the spring when temperatures warm
may be 3-5 fold the applied BOD loading because of the stored BOD demand, and
odors often result at this time of the year (4).
Lagoon organic loading rates have to be lower and hydraulic detention
times longer in cold climates. Lagoon size is determined for the lower
organic loading rate permissible in the winter, often 180 days detention time
(1). Further, discharge of effluent should not occur from an ice -covered
lagoon. Anaerobic conditions prevail in a lagoon that is ice -covered and
effluent quality will be poor. Often, a mechanical aerator is operated in
the wintertime to prevent.complete freezing of a lagoon surface.
Seasonal temperature changes also cause thermal stratification in some
lagoons. This can result in a sudden mixing of the upper and lower layers of
a lagoon in the spring and fall (overturn periods). Significant odor
production and a poor quality effluent may •occur during these overturn
periods.
Fate of Pollutants in Lagoon Systems
Organic wastes (BOD) are ultimately converted to COz, methane and inert
sludge in a lagoon system. In time, the sludge may accumulate and need to be
removed from the lagoon. Most waste treatment lagoons remove 85-95% of
influent BOD5, if given enough time and are not organically overloaded or
limited by aeration. Typically, about 50% of the applied BOD ends up as new
bacteria (sludge). Anaerobic degradation, if it occurs, further reduces the
remaining BOD by 50%, lost to the atmosphere as CH4 gas. Overall, a net 75-
30% BOD removal as gases (CO2 and CH4) occurs in lagoons (2). About 20-25% of
the influent waste ends up as a sludge which may accumulate in the lagoon and
which needs to be periodically removed and disposed of (unless continuously
lost to the effluent). One to'.two ft3/per capita/year sludge accumulation may
be expected in most lagoons (5).
Nitrogen in wastewater is principally in the form of organic nitrogen
(protein) and ammonia. Most of the organic nitrogen is rapidly converted to
ammonia by ammonifying bacteria in the lagoon. Ammonia is removed from
wastewater in lagoons through three processes: (1) stripping to the
atmosphere, significant at pH values greater than pH=8 often induced by algal
growth; (2) assimilation into microorganisms (bacteria and algae); and (3)
5

41
bacterial nitrification followed by denitrification. Lagoons can remove 50 to
99% of influent nitrogen, depending on operation (1). Bacterial nitrification
is strongly temperature dependent and ceases below a temperature of
approximately 5C. This is why lagoon effluent ammonia concentration is
highest in the wintertime.
Phosphorus is also removed in lagoons by assimilation into microorgan-
isms. However, the main phosphorus removal mechanism in lagoons appears to
be chemical precipitation and phosphorus accumulation in the bottom sludge,
enhanced by high pH values induced by algal growth (pH > 8.5). Lagoons can
remove 30-90% of influent phosphorus (1).
Disinfection
A typical domestic wastewater contains approximately 107-e fecal coliform
bacteria per 100 mis. Pathogen content of the wastewater is variable,
dependent on the carrier and prevalent disease rates in the community. It is
generally accepted that a treated wastewater effluent presents little risk if
the fecal coliform count is less than 200 per 100 mis.
Fecal coliforms and pathogens do not grow in wastewater lagoons and
steadily die -away with time due to natural processes such as..starvation,
predation, toxicity, sunlight (W) stress, and flocculation and sedimentation.
Fecal coliform die -off is highly related to time and temperature, as shown in
Figure 2 (from reference 6). The time required for natural fecal coliform
die -off usually dictates the hydraulic detention time (and hence size) of most
lagoons unless the final effluent is disinfected.
From Figure 2 it can be seen that a single lagoon operated at 15C would
yield an effluent suitable for discharge (<200 fecal coliforms per 100 mis.)
after approximately 80 days .of retention time. However, at a lagoon
temperature of less than 10C, an effluent fecal coliform count suitable for
discharge would not be achieved through natural processes in any reasonable
time for a single lagoon. This is why lagoons often produce an effluent with
high fecal coliform counts during the wintertime. Multiple lagoons in series
achieve better fecal coliform removal than a single lagoon.
Chemical (chlorine, chlorine dioxide or ozone) or ultraviolet light
disinfection of lagoon effluents is often needed to protect downstream water
users from the risk of disease. Most used is chlorine and only this will be
discussed here.
Chlorine disinfection is generally successful at 1-2 mg/L combined chlor-
ine residual for a contact time of at least 60 minutes. Proper disinfection
requires good mixing of the chlorine and the effluent. Most problems in
lagoon effluent disinfection are due to either a low initial chlorine dose or
improper mixing. Sufficient chlorine must first be added to overcome any
immediate chemical chlorine demand in the effluent. Chlorine demanding
substances whip consume chlorine and interfere with disinfection include: some
soluble organic compounds, especially organic acids; hydrogen sulfide;.
nitrite: and algae. Hydrogen sulfide, common in organically overloaded
lagoons and when lagoons are frozen over, exerts a chlorine demand of 5 mg/L
chlorine per mg/L hydrogen sulfide. Combined chlorine residuals may cause
algae clumping and settling, often lowering the effluent total suspended
solids. Free chlorine at concentrations greater than 0.5 mg/L cause algal
0

cell lysis (breakup)(1). This releases the cell contents and causes
significant chlorine demand and an increase in the effluent BOD.
Reinoculation of lagoons with waterfowl feces may raise the effluent
fecal coliform levels to unacceptable amounts. Here, unless effluent chemical
disinfection is used, some form of waterfowl control may be needed.
Effluent Violations in Lagoon Systems
Based on our experience, the most common problems leading to poor lagoon
performance are: (1) low dissolved oxygen and poor BOD removal; (2) loss of
wastewater solids to the final effluent by short-circuiting or sludge build-
up; and (3) algal overgrowth. A summary of common problems in lagoon
operation and possible solutions is given in Table 1. A listing of the
visual/sensual and microscopic observations that occur with some of these
problems is given in Table 3.
BOD5 violations in lagoon effluents are often accompanied_ by high
effluent total -suspended solids (TSS). A BOD5/TSS ratio of >0.5 in a lagoon
effluent is usually an indication of a solids loss problem. High solids in
lagoon effluents have several causes:
1. solids overload with influent wastewater solids (sludge) being carried
through the lagoon to the final effluent.
2. lagoon short-circuiting with sludge being carried through to the final
effluent.
3. growth of waste treatment microorganisms that won't settle by gravity
before effluent discharge. This is usually proliferation of
filamentous bacteria (termed bulking sludge).
4. algal overgrowth (bloom) in the system and loss of these to the
effluent.
A microscopic examination of the solids present in a lagoon effluent can
usually identify the nature of the problem.
Troubleshooting the Waste Treatment Lagoon
Many different problems can occur in lagoon operation that can lead to
effluent violations (see Table 1). Troubleshooting a problem should begin
with a thorough engineering evaluation for proper organic loading rate and
hydraulic detention time, adequate aeration and mixing, possible short-
circuiting, and sludge build-up." Additional recommended procedures are a
microscopic solids analysis, measurement of the diurnal dissolved oxygen
concentration and pH, and performance of the filtered/unfiltered BODs
comparison.
7

One approach to the resolution of lagoon problems is the microscopic
solids analysis, performed for each lagoon cell at the transfer point and the
final effluent before chlorination. This technique requires the microscopic
examination of fresh lagoon samples using a phase contrast microscope capable
of achieving a total magnification of 1000X. Solids types present and their
relative abundance are measured by this technique. Solids type categories
include: (1) raw Wastewater or sludge solids; (2) treatment solids (bacterial
flocs); (3) filamentous bacteria; (4) sulfur bacteria; and (5) algae. These
solids types are easily recognized with a little experience. The significance
of these solids types is explained in Table 2.
It is recommended that a soluble/total BON analysis be performed on the
lagoon final effluent, to be done in conjunction with the microscopic
examination. Here, the lagoon effluent sample is analyzed for BON in two
ways: (1) as normal for total BON; and (2) first filtered through a 0.45 um
pore size filter and the filtrate analyzed for BOD5 (soluble BODO . The
difference, between these two values is the particulate BODE present. A
particulate BON value of )50% of the total BOD5 indicates a solids loss
problem in the lagoon effluent. The microscopic examination is then used to
identify the types of solids being lost from the lagoon thus leading to the
cause(s) of the problem.
Basic types of information needed for troubleshooting lagoons are:
1. the -type of waste being treated, whether domestic, industrial or mixed
domestic -industrial, and whether septage is allowed in the system.
2. the hydraulic detention time for each lagoon cell and the system as a
whole.
3. if a facultative lagoon, the organic loading rate expressed as lbs.
BOD/surface acre/day.
if an aerated lagoon, the organic loading rate in lbs. BOD/day and the
pounds of oxygen being supplied per day (the aerator manufacturer
stated oxygen transfer rate downrated for the field transfer rate at
the elevation and temperature of operation).
4. lagoon dissolved oxygen measurements at several. places and depths in
each cell and the dissolved oxygen diurnal fluctuation.
5. the lagoon pH (each cell) and any diurnal fluctuation.
6. a check, if needed, for lagoon hydraulic short-circuiting (dye or salt
addition).
7. a solids analysis for the effluent, including both the unfiltered/
filtered BOD5 analysis and a microscopic examination.
An analysis of this information usually yields a pretty good picture of
the problems occurring.
F

An example of data obtained for a domestic waste three cell lagoon system
(first two cells aerated) in noncompliance for effluent BODE is shown in
Figure 3. Total BON was lowest in the effluent from cell #1 (50 mg/L) and
actually increased somewhat in subsequent cells. The BOD5 in the lagoon cells
was almost all particulate BODE (filtered out by a 0.45 um pore size filter)
with soluble BODE (that passing through the filter) <5 mg/L in all three
cells. TSS was high in all lagoon cells, actually increasing in cell #2
compared to cell #1. The BOD5 and TSS in the lagoon cells was almost all due
to algae cells, present at 2.3 to 3.5 X 106 cells/ml. Chemical signs of algae
overgrowth were a decreasing alkalinity concentration, an increasing pH and an
increasing dissolved oxygen concentration (DO) through the three lagoon cells.
Algae growth was removing alkalinity (CO2 and HCO3-) as a source of inorganic
carbon for growth, causing the pH to increase. Algae growth was also
producing oxygen, reaching supersaturation in cell #3. The microscopic
examination and counting would have readily revealed this high effluent BODE
problem to be due to algae overgrowth, however, analysis of the chemical data
would have lead to the same conclusion.
Control of Algae Overgrowth in Lagoons
Algal growth in lagoons and loss of these to the final effluent (algae
are BOD) is the single most common problem in lagoon operation in Colorado in
the summertime. One ton dry weight of algae can be produced for each million
gallons of domestic wastewater treated under optimum conditions (for the
algae). It is not uncommon to see BOD values increase in the latter cells of
a multicell lagoon system due to algal growth. Systems that control algae
well have sufficient hydraulic detention time and number of cells (4-5) to
allow algae to exhaust growth nutrients by the final cell and to settle
naturally (algae settle when starved). Algal overgrowth is easy to diagnose
-- green effluent and microscopically an abundance of algae. Algae
concentrations in lagoons range from 10 to 150 mg/L (as TSS). Algal counts
above approximately 1-3 X 105 per ml generally contribute BOD above a 30 mg/L
effluent limit. Algal counts above 106 per ml yield an effluent BOD value
above 100 mg/L.
Algae exert an oxygen demand in the BOD test due to their respiration and
due to their stimulation of bacterial respiration when used as a food source
by bacteria. The exact BOD of algae can not be given as the extent that they
degrade in the BOD five day test is dependent on the initial "health" of the
algae and the algae species present. For example, Fitzgerald (7) found that
dead Chlorella (autoclaved) had a BODs four times that of live Chlorella, due
to their more rapid use as a food source by heterotrophic bacteria. Further,
algal respiration in the BOD bottle is highly variable. Fitzgerald (7) found
that algae grown under conditions of sufficient CO2 (pH 7-7.5) were more
active in using oxygen in the BOD test bottle than algae grown at CO2
deficient conditions (pH 9). Also, the presence of different algal species
caused different amounts of oxygen use in the BOD test. . Fitzgerald (7)
reported the following specific oxygen use by several species of algae:
Pi

Algal Species
Chlorella
Scenesdesmus
Nostoc
Glocotrichia
5 Day Oxygen Use
mg DO / mg SS
0.05 - 0.19
0.13
0.09.
0.40
Algal control methods are varied and a listing of the most common methods
along with some of the advantages anc disadvantages of each is given in Table
4. The basic outline used in Table 4 __ `-;m reference 1, with modifications
based on our experience.
Algae overgrowth in Waste treatment lagoons is a common cause of effluent
BODa. violations in the summertime in Colorado (8). A number of algae control
or removal methods have been used with varying success in Colorado. There are
approximately 800 NPDES permitted wastewater treatment facilities in Colorado
-- 600 of these are lagoons. The majority of these lagoon systems are small,
less than one MGD flow. Due to this, algae control methods most generally
applicable need to be inexpensive and require little operation and
maintenance time.
A number of systems use land application of lagoon effluent, generally
with good success. Effluent filtration processes have met with mixed success.
Intermittent sand filters and slow rate gravel percolation beds have been
successful at algae removal without undue operational problems. Rock dike
filters have not generally been successful in Colorado, due to plugging and
anaerobic conditions (although these have been successful elsewhere (9)). Use
of microstrainers has not been successful, due to rapid plugging by the
microalgae found in most lagoon effluents.
In pond chemical algae control i=s been widely used in Colorado. Copper
sulfate is most used, however, this has met with mixed success. This chemical
needs to be applied before algae growth becomes a problem -- its main function
is to prevent algae growth. If applied after algae growth becomes excessive,
then high effluent BON values may result -- a to discharge in the effluent of
dead algae (which may exert a more rapid than live algae in the BOD test
bottle). Also, the copper dosage:__::: .a precisely controlled or else all
microlife in the lagoon is damaged. _.:_.:ant copper sulfate use may lead to a
build-up of copper in the lagoon sludge, making disposal of this sludge a
bigger problem in the future.
Chlorine applied prior to or in the final lagoon cell may aid algae
clumping and settling. It is .common to see accumulated settled algae in
chlorine contact chambers. When used for algae control, the chlorine dose
must be controlled carefully. Combined chlorine residuals <10 mg/L cause
algal cell clumping and settling. . Combined chlorine residuals >10 mg/L and
any free chlorine residual causes algal cell lysis which can increase the
effluent BODs (1). Trial use of an algae destruction chamber in one system
in Colorado using chlorine dosing before the final lagoon cell resulted in
increased effluent BODa, due to lysis of algae cells.
10

Chemical light shading using dyes (Aquashade) has been successful at
several systems. However, the chemical used is not USEPA approved for
discharge to public waters and this method can only be used for non -
discharging systems.
Physical light shading has proved successful at several systems examined.
Most common is the overgrowth of duckweed (Lemna sp.) in the final lagoon
cell. If properly controlled, a duckweed cover effectively reduces algae
growth by physical light shading (10). However, if not controlled, a duckweed
cover can lead to,serious effluent BON problems. If allowed to overgrow, all
aeration to the final cell is eliminated and a septic effluent can result.
Also, in Colorado and other cold climates, a duckweed cover has to be removed
from the final cell before winter. If not removed (harvested), it dies at the
first freeze, sinks to the bottom of the lagoon and undergoes degradation,
exerting a huge BODa demand and causing high effluent BODa values.
A newer method of physical light shading has proven successful at two
small Colorado lagoon systems in controlling algae overgrowth and in bringing
these systems into compliance for effluent BODa. Both systems installed a
suspended greenhouse fabric material over the final lagoon cell. This cover
effectively blocked 80% of the incoming light and reduced algae growth. A
small problem with this method developed in that low effluent oxygen
concentrations resulted at times. Some algae growth for oxygenation is needed
in the final cell. It appears that some "operation" is necessary at times
with a light cover to allow more light to the final cell. Other problems with
this method are the need to remove the cover in the wintertime to avoid damage
and the difficulty in covering larger sized lagoon cells.
One of the most promising algae removal methods, suitable for all lagoon
systems but especially appropriate for smaller systems, is the use of a
constructed wetlands as an algae removal method in place of the final lagoon
polishing cell. The constructed wetlands should be a subsurface system with
media selected to maximize algae removal and allow its biodegradation. This
could be readily placed within the existing polishing cell structure at most
facilities. Once operating, little or no operation and maintenance would be
required. A pilot program to test the performance of four constructed wetland
designs for algae removal is now being conducted at the City of Las Animas, CO
by the City of Las Animas, Colorado State University, the Colorado Department
of Health and the USEPA. Once the wetland design is proven, use of
constructed wetlands should prove widely applicable as a lagoon effluent
polishing method, especially for smaller systems.
11

References Cited
1. Municipal Wastewater Stabilization Ponds Design Manual, USEPA, Center for
Environmental Research "nformation, Cincinnati, OH, EPA-62511-83-015,
1983.
2. G. A. Boulier and T.J. Atchison, Practical Design and Application of the
Aerated -Facultative Lagoon Process, Hinde Engineering Co., Highland Park,
IL, 1975.
3. K. Mudrack and S. Kunst, Biology of Sewage Treatment and Water Pollution
Control, J. Wiley and Sons, NY, 1986.
4. G.R. Marais and M.S. Capri, A Simplified Kinetic Theory for Aerated
Lagoons; Second International Symposium for Waste Treatment Lagoons,
Kansas City, MO, 1970.
5. W.J. Oswald, Pond Research and Installation Experiences in California,
USPHS Pub. No. 872, Washington, D.C., 1960.
6. W.J. Oswald, Course Materials for Graduate Course in Wastewater Treatment,
University of ,California, Berkeley, 1975.
7. G.P. Fitzgerald, The Effect of Algae on BOD Measurements, J. Water Poll.
Control. Fed. 36:1524, 1964.
8. M.G. Richard, M. Van Mouwerik and D. Bowman, Causes of Domestic Waste
Treatment Lagoon Noncompliance in Colorado, presented at the Rocky
Mountain Water Pollution Control Association's Annual Meeting, Jackson,
WY, 1991.
9. E.J. Middlebrooks, Review of Rock Filters for the Upgrade of Lagoon
Effluents, J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 60:1657, 1988.
10. J. Zirschky and S.C. Reed, The Use of Duckweed for Wastewater Treatment,
J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 60:1253, 1988.
12

PROTOZOA AND ACTIVATED SLUDGE OPERATION
by
Michael Richard, Ph.D.
Colorado State University
Microscopic observation of protozoa and other higher life forms in
activated sludge is a common and widespread practice. Generally, the types of
organisms present can be related to plant performance and effluent quality.
Further, these organisms have a specific use in toxicity assessment.
Activated sludge is a relatively "simple" microbial community (from a
morphological point of view), 'consisting of free and flocculated bacteria
(and filamentous bacteria, at times), protozoa, rotifers, nematodes and a
few other invertebrates. Protozoa and other higher life forms are basically
aerobic and bacteriovorous. A few flagellates occur which are anaerobic and a
number of flagellates occur which are saprophytic, using soluble BOD for
growth. Carnivorous protozoa, both free ciliates and attached ciliates
(suctorians), occur which feed on other protozoa. Chlorophyll -bearing
flagellates are incidentally observed, derived from the aeration basin walls.
Protozoa and other higher life forms constitute approximately 5% of the
activated sludge biomass and are represented by about 200 species (Curds,
1973; Curds, 1975). Numbers can range from 100 to >100,000 per mL, generally
dominated by protozoa, with 500-several thousand per mL observed commonly.
These organisms are an important component of activated sludge and they
perform a number of functions. Foremost is the removal of nonflocculated
bacteria (coliforms and pathogens) from wastewater through their feeding
activities, yielding a clarified effluent (Curds et al., 1968; Curds and Fey,
1969). Additionally, these organisms may contribute to biomass flocculation
through production of fecal pellets and mucus (Curds, 1975) and may
function to break up large floc masses and encourage a more active biomass
through their motility (Javornicky and Prokesova, 1963).
Observation of these organisms is easily done by placing one drop (0.05
mL) of activated sludge on a microscope slide, adding a cover glass, and
examining it at 100X using phase contrast illumination. All protozoa and
other higher life forms present should be counted by scanning the entire cover
glass area using the microscope's mechanical stage and the results averaged
for 4-5 separate preparations. The total number of organisms present per mL of
activated sludge culture would be the average count per cover glass area times
20. If a large number of organisms are present, at times observed for
flagellates, count the number present per field of view (at 100X), average
this for 10-20 fields of view, and multiply this number by the number of
fields of view for the cover glass area (typically about 300 at 100X
magnification for a 22 X 22mm cover glass). This procedure should be
conducted frequently (several times a week or even daily) as protozoan
populations in activated sludge can change rapidly under some circumstances
(for example, toxicity upset).
i3

Taxonomic classification of these organisms is based primarily on
motility. The six basic groups observed in activated sludge are flagellates,
amoebae, free-swimming ciliates, attached (stalked) ciliates, rotifers and
a few other invertebrates. Identification of these to species is not
necessary, however, recognition of the major groups of protozoa and higher
life forms is useful in activated sludge operation. The most common protozoa
and higher life forms observed in activated sludge based on my experience are
shown in Figure 1. More detailed taxonomic identification keys for these can
be found as follows: protozoa - Curds, 1969; Curds, 1975; Jahn, Bovee and
Jahn, 1980; Mudrack and Kunst, 1986; rotifers - Calaway, 1968; Doohan, 1975;
Gerardi, 1987; nematodes - Calaway, 1963; Schiemer, 1975; Tarjan, 1977;
Gerardi, 1987a; and annelids - De L.G. Solbe, 1975. The major groups of
protozoa and higher life forms found in activated sludge are described below.
flagellates - these are small (5-20 um), oval or elongated forms actively
motile by one or more long, whip -like flagella. Many. species found in
activated sludge feed on soluble BOD and their presence can indicate a high
soluble BOD condition.
amoebae - these are variable in shape and size (10-200 um) and are motile by
pseudopodia ("false feet"). Some species present in lightly loaded
plants have a hard, ornate "shell". Amoebae grow well on particulate BOD and
are able to tolerate a low DO environment.
free-swimming_ ciliates - these are round- to oval -shaped (20-400 um) and are
actively motile by rows of short, hair -like cilia. Some species have cilia
fused into spikes which aid in crawling on the activated sludge solids
("crawlers"). Ciliates usually occur at conditions of good floc formation and
generally indicate good activated sludge operation.
attached ciliates - these appear much as the ciliates above, but are found
attached to flocs via a stalk which may be either rigid or contractile. Also,
some species have one organism per stalk while others are colonial. Stalked
ciliates are generally a sign of stable activated sludge operation and the
species found can be used to indicate approximate sludge age with the colonial
forms occurring at longer MCRT.
rotifers - these appear in various shapes and are much larger (50 -500 um) and
more complex in structure than protozoa. Most are motile and attach to
activated sludge flocs by a contractile "foot". These occur over a wide range
in sludge MCRT with some species indicative of longer MCRT.
higher invertebrates - these include nematodes, tardigrades such as
Macrobiotus, and annelids such as Nais and Aelosoma (which can impart a
reddish color to activated sludge due to their red- or orange -colored
"eyespots"). Nematodes are generally only observed in longer MCRT systems
while the tardigrades and annelids appear to occur only in nitrifying
activated sludge systems, probably due to their susceptibility to ammonia
toxicity.
These various protozoan and invertebrate groups develop in activated
sludge according to growth conditions. Protozoa have growth rates of one per
day or higher (20C)(Curds, 1975) and rotifers have growth rates of 1-2 per day
(20C)(Doohan, 1975), which rarely limits their development in most activated
2

sludge systems. Nematodes have a longer doubling time and these generally only
develop in long MCRT systems (HPCF, 1990). Food availability, principally
freely dispersed bacteria or turbidity, primarily determines which group
predominates. Flagellates, amoebae, and some small, free-swimming ciliates
require a high prey density (>106-7 per mL) due to their inefficient feeding
mechanism of chase and capture. These are selected for at plant startup and
at low MCRT and high F/M conditions. Attached ciliates, rotifers, and other
invertebrates differ in that they develop at lower prey densities due to their
attachment to the activated sludge floc and their ability to feed by ciliary
action ("filter feeding"). These are selected for at long MCRT and low F/M.
This leads to a marked succession of protozoa and other higher life forms in
activated sludge according to process parameters, shown in Table
Optimum activated sludge performance occurs when there is a balance among
free-swimming and attached ciliates and rotifers. An overabundance of
flagellates, amoebae, or free-swimming ciliates is an indication of high
organic loading (high F/M) while an overabundance of attached ciliates,
rotifers, and other higher life forms, especially nematodes, is an indication
of low organic loading (low F/M). These relationships are summarized in Table
1 and Figure 2. Sludge settling often deteriorates at the extremes of the
F/M range, so many plants attempt to adjust process parameters based on the
types of protozoans and other higher life forms observed in• the activated
sludge.
Table 1. Organic Loading of Activated Sludge and Predominant Higher Life
Forms Observed x.
Condition Predominant Groups
high organic loading flagellates, amoebae, and small, free-
swimming ciliates.
optimum organic loading good diversity of organisms, dominated by
free-swimming and stalked ciliates.
low organic loading stalked ciliates, rotifers, and higher
invertebrates, especially nematodes.
* references: Reynoldson, 1942; Baines et al., 1953; Curds and Cockburn,
1970; 1970a; Curds, 1975; Mudrack and Kunst, 1986.
One of the most valuable uses of microscopic observation of these
organisms is in toxicity assessment. These organisms, particularly ciliates
and rotifers, are generally the first to be impacted by toxic materials and
these may serve in essence as an in situ biomonitoring test for toxicants or
other adverse stresses. The first noticeable sign of toxicity or stress is
usually a slowing or cessation in cilia movement for the ciliates. Next, the
predominant protozoan groups shift toward flagellates and small, free-swimming
ciliates which often "bloom" to high numbers (>10,000 per mQ . This is an

indication of the breakup of the activated sludge floc and overabundance
of free bacteria (turbidity), used by these organisms as a food source.
Finally, in severe cases, these protozoans die, which may lead to foaming
caused by a large release of protozoan cell contents. Toxicants yielding
severe toxicity for these organisms include heavy metals and cyanide.
Stresses other than toxicity that induce these responses include low oxygen
supply, pH outside the range 6.0 - 8.0, and high temperature. Protozoa and
other higher life forms are generally absent from industrial activated sludge
systems operated at temperatures above 37-40C.
References
Jahn, T.L., L. Bovee and E.F. Jahn, How to Know the Protozoa, 3rd Ed., Wm C.
Brown Co., Dubuque, IA, 1980.
Mudrack, K. and S. Kunst, Biology of Sewage Treatment and Water Pollution
Control, John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1986.
Curds, C.R., Chapter 5 "Protozoa" in Ecological Aspects _f Used -Water
Treatment. Vol. I. The Organisms and Their Ecology, C.R. Curds and H.A.
Hawkes, Eds., Academic Press, NY, 1975.
Schiemer, F., Chapter 6 "Nematoda" in Ecological Aspects of Used -Water
Treatment. Vol. I. The Organisms and Their Ecology, C.R. Curds and H.A.
Hawkes, Eds., Academic Press, NY, 1975.
Doohan, D., Chapter 7 "Rotifera" in Ecological Aspects of Used -Water
Treatment. Vol. I. The Organisms and Their Ecology, C.R. Curds and H.A.
Hawkes, Eds., Academic Press, NY, 1975.
De L.G. Solbe, J.F., Chapter 8 "Annelida" in Ecological Aspects of Used -Water
Treatment. Vol. I. The Organisms and Their Ecology, C.R. Curds and H.A.
Hawkes, Eds., Academic Press, NY, 1975.
ANON, Wastewater. Biology: The Microlife, Water Poll. Control. Fed.,
Alexandria, VA, 1990.
Curds, C.R., An Illustrated Key to the British Freshwater Ciliated Protozoa
Commonly Found in Activated Sludge, Technical Paper No. 12, Water Pollution
Research, Ministry of Technology, London, 1969.
Calaway, W.T., "Nematodes in Wastewater Treatment", J. Water Poll. Control
Fed. 35:1006, 1963.
Gerardi, M.H., "An Operator's Guide to Free -Living Nematodes in Wastewater
Treatment", Public Works 118:47, 1987a.
Tarjan, A.C. et al., "An Illustrated Key to Nematodes Found in Fresh Water",
J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 49:2318, 1977.
Calaway, W.T., The Metazoa of Waste Treatment Processes - Rotifers", J. Water
Poll. Control Fed. 40:412, 1968
4

Gerardi, M.H., "An Operator's Guide to Rotifers in Wastewater Treatment
Processes", Public Works 118:66, 1987.
Curds, C.R., "The Role of Protozoa in the Activated Sludge Process", Am. Zool.
13.161, 1973.
Curds, C.R., et al., "An Experimental Study of the Role of the Ciliated
Protozoa in the Activated Sludge Process", J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 67:312,
1968.
Curds, C.R., and G.J. Fey, "The Effect of Ciliated Protozoa on the Fate of
Escherichia coli in the Activated Sludge Process", Water Res. 3:853, 1969.
Javornicky, P., and V. Prokesova, "The Influence of Protozoa and. Bacteria Upon
the Oxidation of Organic Substances in Water", Int. Revue Ges., Hydrobiol.
Hydogr. 48:335, 1963.
Baines,• S., et al., "Protozoa as Indicators in Activated Sludge Treatment",
Sew. Ind. Wastes 25:1023, 1953.
Reynoldson, T.B., "Vorticella as an Indicator Organism in Activated Sludge",
Nature (London) 149: 608, 1942.
Curds, C.R., and A. Cockburn, "Protozoa in Biological Sewage Treatment
Processes - I. A survey of the Protozoa Fauna of British Percolating Filters
and Activated Sludge Plants", Water Res. 4:225, 1970.
Curds, C.R., and A. Cockburn, "Protozoa in Biological Sewage Treatment
Processes - II. Protozoa as Indicators in the Activated Sludge Process", Water
Res. 4:237, 1970a.
5 17

FIGURE 1. Representative Protozoa and Higher Life Forms Found
in Activated Sludge and Other Secondary Processes.
1. Flagellates:
_.�
22 23 24
2. Amoebae:
VV
32
27 �.'' 31
26 29
3. Free -Swimming Ciliates:
6 • J `�3 a •cam. �
7 HIV* ,p 11 iT ti %18ti ' 6
4. Attached Ciliates:
,=
22
S. Rotifers:
.0 1 M
•1
29 PZ44
6. Higher Invertebrates:
l•
25
2T L
� w
�i+{ T
32
■

KEY FOR ORGANISMS SHOWN IN FIGURE 1
Flagellates: 22
Codosiga
23
Oikomonas
24
Bodo
9
Eudorina
11
Mallomonas
Amoebae: 26
Hartmanella
29
Mayorella
27
Amoeba
31
Difflugia
32
Euglypha
Free -Swimming Ciliates:
7
Chilodonella
10
Paramecium
11
Frontonia
17
Oxytricha
_
18
Euplotes
5
Lacrymaria
6
Dileptus
Attached Cialiates:
22
Vorticella
29
Carchesium
24
Epistylis
25
Zoothamnium
27
Tokophrya
Rotifers: 16 _ Filina
1 Philodina
32 Platyias
3 Rotaria
Higher Invertebrates:
5 tardigrade (Macrobiotus)
7 bristle -worm (Nais)
12 nematode
7 ' `1

GOOD SETTLING
ROTIFERS
STRAGGLERS 4l PIN FLOC
W
ROTIFERS
STALKED
NEMATODES
STALKED
U
Z
C ILIA T ES
a
CILIATES
ROTIFERS
w
a FREE SWIM.
id
a CILIATES
NEMATODES
>
FREE
E'
SWIMMING
CILIATES
STALKED
a �
CILIATES
FREE
SWIMMING
ROTIFERS
CILIATES
FREE
STALKED
FLAGELLATES
SWIMMING
CILIATES
CILIATES
FREE SWIM.
o:
CILIATES
FLAGELLATES
FLAGELLATES
FLAGELLATES
FLAGELLATES
A MOEBOIDS
I A MOEBOIDS
A MOEBOIDS
AMOEBOIDS
A MOEBOIDS
RELATIVE NUMBER OF MICROORGANISMS VS. SLUDGE QUALITY
FIGURE 2
w)�-
no
of
z-
n
C
V
rr
Dc
m�
0
33m
-4 D
°mo
<0
n�
ow
z
0
r

Presented "at the EPA's Seventh Annual National Operator Training
Conference, Altamonte Springs, Florida, June 11-12, 1990.
TROUBLESHOOTING ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS CONTROL
Michael G. Richard, Ph.D
Department of Environmental Health
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80523
INTRODUCTION
Many problems can -develop in activated sludge operation that
adversely affect effluent quality with origins in the engineering,
hydraulic and microbiological components of the process. The real
"heart" of the activated sludge system is the development and mainten-
ance of a mixed microbial culture (activated sludge) that treats waste-
water and which can be managed. This paper will discuss the types of
microbiological problems that can occur in activated sludge operation.
My approach to troubleshooting the activated sludge process is based on
microscopic_ examination and oxygen uptake rate (OUR) testing to
determine the basic cause of the problem or upset and whether it is
microbiological in nature. These methods are easy, fast and inexpen-
sive, compared to other approaches, and are generally understandable and
accepted.
A number of different problems can occur in activated sludge
operation that are related to the "quality" of the activated sludge
developed. Those that will be discussed in this paper include:
dispersed (non -settleable) growth, filamentous and "slime" bulking,
filamentous foaming, nitrification-denitrification problems and
toxicity.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE FLOC FORMATION AND DISPERSED GROWTH PROBLEMS
Basic floc formation, required for activated sludge operation due
to the use of gravity clarifiers, is due to a growth form of many
species of natural bacteria. Floc -forming species share the
characteristic of the formation of an extracellular polysaccharide
("slime") layer, also termed a glycocalyx. This material, which
consists of polysaccharide, protein and sometimes cellulose fibrils,
"cements" the bacteria together to form a floc. Floc formation occurs
at lower growth rates and at lower nutrient levels (starvation or
stationary growth conditions). Floc -forming species often grow as
"normal" bacteria, in a dispersed and non -settleable form, if the growth
rate is too fast. This latter condition, termed dispersed growth,
occurs rarely in domestic waste activated sludge operation but occurs
often in industrial waste treatment, generally due to high organic
loading (high F/M conditions). Here, no flocs develop and biomass
settling does not occur, resulting in a very turbid effluent. The
correct remedial action for a dispersed growth problem is a reduction in

the F/M of the system (slow it down). Dispersed growth problems often
occur after a toxicity or hydraulic washout event when the activated
sludge biomass is low and high F/M conditions prevail.
At times, small, weak flocs are formed in activated sludge that are
easily sheared and subject to hydraulic surge flotation in the final
clarifier leading to a turbid effluent. These small flocs, termed pin
floc, consist only of floc -forming bacteria without a filament backbone
and usually are (50-75 um in diameter. This condition most occurs in an
over -oxidized sludge, e.g. over -extended aeration.
Free floating filaments can, times, cause a dispersed growth
problem. Here, the cause is filamenE-specific and is the same as for
filamentous bulking (discussed below).
FILAMENTOUS BULKING
A 'bulking sludge is defined as one which settles and compacts
slowly. An operational definition often used is a sludge with a
sludge volume index (SVI) of >150 ml/g. However, each plant will have a
specific SVI value where sludge is lost to the final effluent, which
can vary from a SVI (100 ml/g to >300 ml/g, depending on the size and
performance of the final clarifier(s) and hydraulic considerations.
Thus, a bulking sludge may or may not lead to a bulking problem,
depending on the specific treatment plant's ability to contain the
sludge within the clarifier.
A certain amount of filamentous bacteria can be beneficial to the
activated sludge process. A lack of filamentous bacteria can lead to
small, easily sheared flocs (pin -floc) that settle well but leave behind
a turbid effluent. Filaments are hypothesized to serve as a "backbone"
to floc structure, allowing the formation of larger, stronger flocs.
The presence of some filaments also serves to catch and hold small
particles during sludge settling, yielding a lower turbidity effluent.
It is only When filaments grow in large amounts (approximately 107 um
filaments per gram of activated sludge) that hindrance in sludge
settling and compaction occurs. In concept, bulking can be envisioned
as the physical effects of the filaments on the close approach and
compaction of activated sludge solids (flocs). Depending on the type of
filament involved, two forms of interference in sludge settling occur:
(1) interfloc-bridging - where the filaments extend from the floc
surface and physically hold the floc particles apart; and
2) open -floc structure - where the filaments grow mostly within the
floc and the floc grows around and attached to the filaments.
Here, the floc becomes large, irregularly -shaped, and contains
substantial internal voids. Tr_^ latter type of bulking is often
overlooked by the untrained observer.
A bulking sludge can result in the loss of sludge inventory to the
treated effluent, causing environmental damage and NPDES vi:lations. In
severe cases, loss of the sludge inventory can lead to a loss of the
plant's treatment capacity and failure of the process. Additionally,
K

disinfection of the treated wastewater can become compromised by the
excess solids present during bulking. In less severe cases, bulking
leads to excessive return sludge recycle rates and problems in waste
activated sludge disposal. Many problems in waste sludge thickening are
really filamentous bulking problems.
The true incidence of bulking in the U.S. is unknown but has been
estimated to affect at least 60% of plants, either continuously or
intermittently. Recent work in Colorado suggests that at least 90% of
activated sludge plants experience a bulking episode at least once
during the year. Bulking may be one of the main reasons why
approximately 50% of U.S. activated sludge plants don't consistently
meet their NPDES discharge standards.
Early microbiological investigations into filamentous* organisms
found in activated sludge were hampered by a lack of knowledge
concerning the types of filaments that may occur. Usually,
Sphaerotilus natans was diagnosed, often without adequate
identification. However, it is now known •that approximately 20
different filamentous bacteria commonly occur in activated sludge and
each may lead to operational problems. D.H. Eikelboom in Holland (Water
Research 9:365, 1975) provided a rational basis to "identify" the
different filamentous bacteria found in activated sludge. This
identification system is based on filament characteristics as viewed
under phase contrast microscopy for live samples (in situ) and two
simple staining reactions: the Gram and Neisser stain. Each filament
can be "classified" using a four digit code, avoiding the earlier
problems of lack of specific genus names. This is important as many of
the filaments found in activated sludge have not been isolated in pure
culture and hence their identity remains unknown. As these filaments
are isolated and properly named (a current research thrust), generic
names replace the four digit number code. Hence, the current list of
filaments is a hybrid between numbers and genus names.
Work by David Jenkins and coworkers at the University of
California, Berkeley, applied this filament identification system to
bulking sludges in the U.S. Filaments were observed to be the cause of
bulking activated sludge in almost all of the bulking episodes examined
from 270 separate treatment plants. The responsible filaments were
identified and ranked using Eikelboom's system which is shown in Table 1
(note the use of both four digit numbers and genus names). From this it
becomes clear that certain filaments occur more commonly as a cause of
bulking than others. For example, six filaments' account for >90% of
bulking episodes investigated ("the biggies"). Similar surveys of the
occurrence of"filaments in bulking sludges performed in Europe and South
Africa have yielded different patterns of specific filament occurrence
than observed in the U.S. This is logical as activated sludge plants
are operated differently in various parts of the world and the filaments
that develop depend strongly on the operating conditions and plant
design.
3

TABLE 1. Filament Abundance in USA Bulking Activated Sludge Plants.
PERCENTAGE OF PLANTS WITH BULKING
SLUDGE WHERE FILAMENT WAS OBSERVED
RANK FILAMENTOUS ORGANISM TO BE DOMINANT'
*Z
Nocardia spp.
31
1
type 1701
29
2
type 021N
19
3
type 0041
16
4
Thiothrix spp.
12
5
SSphaerotilus natans
12
6
Microthrix parvicella
10
7
type 0092
9
8
Haliscomenobacter hydrossis
9
9
type 0675.
7
10
type 0803
6
11
Nostocoida limicola
6
12
type 1851
6
13
type 0961
4
14
type 0581
3
15
Beggiatoa spp.
1
16
fungi
1
17
type 0914
.1
-
all others
1
.1 based on
a survey of 270 bulking U.S.
activated sludge plants (35
states).
2 Nocardia
spp. was the most commonly observed filament; its occurrence
is related to foaming, not bulking.
Work again by David Jenkins and coworkers has correlated bulking
by specific filaments with plant operation (Table 2). Many of these
associations are tentative and, for some filaments, not complete, but
may serve as a general guideline. This is an area of active research
and more definitive filament -specific causes (and remedies) should
become available in the future.
Five specific causes of filament growth (and bulking) are currently
recognized. The information in Table 2 is now used in reverse to the
way that it was developed -- from the identification of the most
significant filaments -present in a bulking sludge, the "cause" for such
growth can be determined. Note that some filaments have more than one
cause as shown in Table 2. The combination of conditions listed may
favor bulking by a particular filament more so than any single
condition. It is important to perform filament identification early in a
bulking episode to observe the causative organism. Once bulking
continues for some time, process upset can lead to the proliferation of
other filament types (secondary filaments) which can confuse diagnosis
of the real cause.
4

Today, many activated sludge plants regularly monitor the
occurrence and abundance of filaments in their sludge, which has become
an important process control tool. This often leads to "heading off" a
bulking episode before it becomes serious. Since the microbial
population in activated sludge changes slowly (in most cases), generally
requiring 2-3 sludge ages to radically change, this microscopic
observation needs to be performed only at weekly intervals. However,
during a period of bulking onset or during application of remedial
actions such as chlorination, daily observation of the activated sludge
is warranted.
TABLE 2. Filament Types as Indicators of Conditions Causing Activated
Sludge Bulking.
Suggested Causative Condition Indicator,Filament Types
Low Dissolved Oxygen
(for the applied organic loading)
Low Organic Loading Rate
(low F/M)
Septic Wastes / Sulfides
S. natans, type 1701 and H.
hydrossis
M. parvicella, Nocardia spp.,
H. hydrossis, types 021N, 0041,
0675, 0092, 0581, 1851, 0961, and
0803.
Thiothrix spp., Beggiatoa spp., and
Type 021N.
Nutrient Deficiency - N and/or P Thiothrix spp. and types 021N, 0041
(industrial -wastes only) and 0675.
Low pH ((pH 6.0)
SLIME BULKING
fungi.
Nitrogen and phosphorus can be growth limiting if not present in
sufficient amounts in influent wastewater, a problem with industrial
wastes and not domestic wastes. In general, a BOD5:N:P weight ratio in
the wastewater of 100:5:1 is needed for complete BOD removal. Other
nutrients such as iron or 'sulfur have been reported as limiting to
activated sludge, but. this is not common.
Signs of nutrient deficiency include: filamentous bulking; a
viscous activated sludge which exhibits significant exopolysaccharide
("slime") when "stained" with India ink; and foam on the aeration basin
which contains exopolysaccha ride (which has surface active properties).
One check for nutrient deficiency is to be sure that some ammonia or
nitrate and ortho-phosphate remain in the effluent at all times.
5
�.s

Extracellular polysaccharide is produced by all activated sludge
bacteria and is, in part, responsible for floc formation.
Overproduction of this polysaccharide can occur at nutrient deficiency
(and also oxygen deficiency or high F/M) which builds up in the sludge
(it is poorly degraded) and leads to poor sludge settling, termed "slime
bulking", and to problems in sludge dewatering. Normal activated sludge
contains from 10 to 20% polysaccharide on a dry weight basis with the
higher polysaccharide content occurring at younger sludge ages. Sludges
with polysaccharide content above 20% may have settling and dewatering
problems (values to 70% have been observed with some nutrient deficient
industrial waste sludges).
Overproduction of polysaccharide is caused by the growth of floc -
forming organisms which at nutrient deficiency form substantial amounts
of exocellular polysaccharides ("slime"). This "slime" is a metabolic
shunt product produced when insufficient nitrogen and/or phosphorus is
available to produce necessary cell components such as proteins. These
shunt products also may be produced at low dissolved oxygen and at high
organic loading (high F/M).
A special case related to slime bulking is zoogloeal bulking. Here,
fingered zoogloeal organisms may proliferate in activated sludge to the
extent that sludge settling is hindered. The responsible organism is
Zoogloea ramigera, the "classical" floc -former. Here, large masses of
this dendritic floc -former may physically interfere in sludge settling
and compaction similar to filamentous bulking. This zoogloeal organism
is encouraged for at high F/M conditions.
FILAMENTOUS FOAMING
A brief review of activated sludge foams and their causes is given
in Table 3. Use of microscopic examination can readily diagnose most of
these, particularly when filaments are involved. Three filamentous
organisms can cause activated sludge foaming: Nocardia spp. and
Microthrix parvicella (commonly), and type 1863 (rarely). The following
discussion will focus on Nocardial foaming as it appears to be the most
common and severe, and little as yet is known of foaming by the other
filaments. Nocardial foaming appears to occur at approximately 40% of
activated sludge plants in the U.S.
Nocardia spp. and Microthrix parvicella both appear to grow, and
cause foaming, at lower MCRT operation and when significant amounts of
grease and fat are present in the aeration basin (their preferred growth
substrate). Both are essentially "lower F/M" filaments.
N.

Table 3. Description and Causes of Activated Sludge Foams
Foam Description
thin, white to grey foam
white, frothy, billowing
foam
pumice -like, grey foam
(ashing)
thick sludge blanket on the
final clarifier(s)
thick, pasty or slimy,
greyish foam (industrial
systemg only)
thick, brown, stable foam
enriched in filaments
Causes)
low cell residence time or "young" sludge
(startup foam)
once common due to nonbiodegradable deter-
gents (now uncommon)
excessive fines recycle from other pro-
cesses (e.g. anaerobic digesters)
denitrification
nutrient -deficient foam; foam consists of
polysaccharide material released from the
floc
filament -induced foaming, caused by
Nocardia, Microthrix or type 1863.
Nocardial foam occurs as a thick, stable, brown foam or "scum"
inches to many feet thick on aeration basin and final clarifier
surfaces. Normal scum traps (too small) and Water sprays (too weak) may
be useless to control this type of foam. This foam consists of activated
sludge solids (flocs) containing large amounts of Nocardia filaments
growing from their surface and is quite stable, compared to most other
foams, due to the physical "interlocking" of the Nocardia filaments.
These foams are easy to diagnose microscopically - they are dominated by
branched, Gram positive filaments and a simple Gram stain of the foam is
all that. is needed. The analysis should include comparison to the
underlying MLSS (prepare both samples for Gram staining on the same
slide). A true Nocardial foam will contain 10-100 fold more Nocardia
than the underlying MLSS. Nocardial foams also contain substantial lipid
concentrations (hexane extractables), up to 40% of dry weight versus 5-
10% for Nocardia-free activated sludge solids (whether this lipid
content of foams is due to the Nocardia themselves or to entrapped
grease and fat is not clear). In addition, these foams contain
significant entrapped air, with a bulk density of approximately 0.7
g/cc.
Nocardial foams occur in all types of plants, with no particular
association with specific modes of operation or aeration. These foams
may be more severe in plants with fine bubble or jet aeration and in
oxygen activated sludge plants. These foams also occur equally in plants
treating domestic, industrial and mixed wastes. Industrial wastes
promoting Nocardial growth (and foaming) include dairy, meat and
slaughterhouse, food processing, pharmaceutical, and any others that
contain a significant amount of grease, oil or fat. Nocardial foaming is
also associated with high density restaurant operation in recreational
7 ��

areas in Colorado (e.g. ski resorts and summer camps). I have even
observed Nocardial foaming caused by treatment of locomotive washing
wastes.
Severe Nocardial foams cause a number of operational problems.
These include aesthetics, odors, and safety hazards if they overflow
basins to cover walkways and handrails. In cold weather these foams can
freeze, necessitating "pick and shovel" removal. Foam may escape to the
effluent, increasing effluent suspended solids and compromising
disinfection. In covered aeration basins, foam can accumulate to exceed
the available hydraulic head for gravity flow of wastewater through the
basin. Process control can be compromised if a significant fraction of a
plant's solids inventory is present in the non -circulating foam (e.g. up
to 40% of the total solids inventory can be present in such foams and
process control calculations may not be correct).
There should be some concern expressed for the handling of
Nocardial foams. The most common Nocardia species.found in such foams,
N. amarae, is not pathogenic to lahoratory animals; however, other less
frequently isolated actinomycete strains are known opportunistic human
pathogens (e.g-. N. caviae, N. brasiliensis, N. asteroides and strains of
Mycobacterium). No actual infection has been documented, however,
treatment plant workers and nearby residents may be at risk.
Control of Nocardial foaming is difficult with no "quick fixes".
Chemical antifoam agents have not proven generally effective, probably
because these act on chemical surfactants and not on a solids -stabilized
system. Many plants reduce aeration to control foaming, but process
performance may suffer if oxygen becomes limiting. Further, low oxygen -
induced bulking may occur when this is done.
The "classic" cure for Nocardia growth and foaming has been to
reduce the SRT to less than 9 days. However, many plants have had to
reduce the SRT to less than 2 days for Nocardia control, and -this may be
inconsistent with other process goals, such as nitrification, or sludge
handling capability. Recent studies have shown that a number of
Nocardia species are involved in foaming, and these differ significantly
in growth rate over a fivefold range. The two most dominant species
appear to be N. amarae (slow growing) and N. rhodochrus (also known as
Rhodococcus spp.)(fast growing). It is possible that the SRT needed to
control Nocardial foaming is dependent on which species is involved,
which would be plant specific.
Physical control of foams is most widely practiced using enlarged
surface scum traps and forceful water sprays (often containing chlorine)
and disposal of this material separate from any process that could
recycle this material back to the aeration basin system.
Despite some early reports of foam control using addition of
anaerobic digester supernatant, this control method has not proven
widely successful. Also, return sludge chlorination has not eliminated
Nocardia, although it often helps, due to Nocardia's growth mostly
within the activated sludge flocs where it isn't readily contacted by
chlorine.
8

Many anaerobic digester foaming incidents may be attributed to
treatment of Nocardia-containing waste activated sludge. A nationwide
survey in 1981 by the American Society of Civil Engineers revealed that
as many as half of the anaerobic digesters in use had experienced
foaming at one time or another. It was recently reported that 54% of 26
California activated sludge plants surveyed had recently experienced
anaerobic digester foaming ( van Niekerk et al. JWPCF 59:249, 1987).
Here, it is important to remember that Nocardia cells float, dead or
alive. Even though Nocardia are strict aerobes, their cells are readily
floated (and cause foaming) even under anaerobic conditions.
NITRIFICATION - DENITRIFICATION PROBLEMS
Nitrification can create some problems in activated sludge
operation. Many plants experience an upset condition, often including
dispersed growth and filamentous bulking, every spring when warmer
temperatures induce nitrification. Some plants experience a loss of
chlorine disinfection during nitrification onset, due to a transient
period (weeks) of nitrite build-up. Nitrite has a significant chlorine
demand while ammonia and nitrate do not.
A large problem in some plants is a low pH (to pH = 4) caused by
extensive nitrification and low wastewater alkalinity. Some plants
reduce aeration to reduce nitrification or add soda ash or lime as a
source of alkalinity if this becomes a problem. The use of lower
dissolved oxygen concentration (1.0 mg/L or less) to control
nitrification is not without risk of inducing filamentous bulking by low
dissolved oxygen filaments.
Another problem caused by nitrification is denitrification. Here,
bacteria common in the activated sludge floc respire using nitrate in
place of .free oxygen when it is lacking and release nitrogen gas a a by-
product. This gas is only slightly soluble in water and small nitrogen
gas bubbles form in the activated sludge and cause sludge blanket
flotation in the final clarifier (a rising sludge). An indication of
the occurrence of denitrification can be obtained by holding the sludge
in the settling test jar for several hours -- if the sludge rises
("pops") within 2 hours or less, denitrification problems may be
occurring. Denitrification problems are more prevalent during the warmer
times of the year and can be more severe if a filamentous sludge is
present, due to more extensive entrapment of the nitrogen gas bubbles by
a filamentous sludge.
Control of denitrification is either by control of nitrification
(reduced sludge age or aeration) or by removing the sludge faster from
the final clarifier (increased RAS rates) or by increasing the dissolved
oxygen concentration in the final clarifier. This can be done by
increasing the aeration basin dissolved oxygen concentration, especially
at the clarifier end of a plug flow system. One method useful in severe
cases is the addition of hydrogen peroxide as an oxygen source directly
to the center well of the final clarifier.
Nitrification and denitrification problems can be particularly
troublesome in industrial waste systems where ammonia is supplemented.
FJ

Here, ammonia must be present in the aeration basin at all times to
allow proper biotreatment and to avoid filamentous or slime bulking but
must be kept below approximately 5 mg/L to avoid nitrification-
denitrification problems (low pH and floating sludge). The common
practice of batch addition of nutri^nts to the aeration basin often
leads to nitrification-denitrificatic --roblems.
TOXICITY
Toxic shocks are a common and often severe problem in activated
sludge operation. In a recent study, severe toxicity upset was
experienced by approximately 10% of 25 Colorado activated sludge plants
examined during one year. Toxicity problems were found to be a larger
problem in small communities compared to larger cities, due to the lack
of dilution of toxic releases in small systems. Examples of toxicity
events were the washing of cement or lime trucks to a manhole, dumping
of congealed diesel fuel to the sewer system, release of metal sludges
to the sewer system from a metal plater and overload of small systems
with septage (high organic acids and sulfides).
Sulfide toxicity to activated sludge is more common than currently
recognized. Sulfide may originate from outside the activated sludge
system -- from septic influent wastewater or from septage disposal -- or
may originate "in-house" -- from anaerobic digester flows or from
aeration basins or primary or final clarifiers with sludge build-up and
anaerobic conditions. .
Toxicity can be diagnosed microscopically, often in the following
sequence:
1. an initial flagellate "bloom";
2. subsequent complete die -off of protozoa and higher life forms;
3. biomass deflocculation, often accompanied by foaming;
4. loss of BOD removal; and
5. filamentous bulking upon process recovery.
Toxic wastes generally do not favor filaments directly (except in
the case of HzS), rather, upset conditions allow filaments to
proliferate. For example, bulking by Sphaerotilus natans frequently
follows a toxic upset due to a high F/M condition. Here the "true" F/M
value may be IOX that calculated based on total biomass present, due to
low viability of the biomass.
While microscopic observations can diagnose toxicity (after the
fact), a better method is the use of the OUR test to detect toxicity
early.
The OUR of an activated sludge fed increasing amounts of a nontoxic
waste will initially rise with increasing waste additions to the test
bottle, followed by no further increase in OUR with even higher waste
additions. In contrast, the OUR of an activated sludge fed a toxic
waste may increase initially with increasing waste strength, but will
10

decrease rather dramatically at waste additions above a toxicity
threshold value. A useful definition of microbial "death" is when the
fed OUR is less than the basal endogenous rate.
The OUR test is simple (all that is required is a BOD bottle and a
dissolved oxygen probe) and usually takes less than two hours to
perform. The normal OUR of your activated sludge must be known
beforehand, so run this test periodically to know what is normal for
your plant.
SUMMARY
Most activated sludge upsets and loss of process control are caused
by one of several microbiological problems which include poor floc
formation and dispersed growth, filamentous and slime bulking,
filamentous foaming, nitrification-denitrification problems and
toxicity. Use of the microscopic examination and the OUR test, if
needed, are invaluable tools in troubleshooting the activated sludge
process. Once the cause of the problem or upset is known, several
problem -specific remedies can be used, most often with good success.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Manual on the Causes and Control of Activated Sludge Bulking and
Foaming, D. Jenkins, M.G. Richard and D.T. Daigger, Water Research
Commission, Republic of South Africa, 1984. (available through Ridgeline
Press, Lafayette, CA (415-283-5836).
Activated Sludge Microbiology, M.G. Richard, Water Pollution Control
Federation, Alexandria, VA, 1989. (703-684-2400).
The Relationship Between Viability and Respiration Rate in the
Activated Sludge Process, I. Walker and M. Davis, Hater Research
11:575, 1977.
11

Presented at the Rocky Mountain Water Pollution Control Association's Annual
Conference, Durango, Colorado, September 9, 1992.
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR TERTIARY TREATMENT OF ALGAE -LADEN LAGOON EFFLUENT
AT LAS ANIMAS, COLORADO
by
Michael Richard, Ph.D.
RBD Engineering Consultants, Fort Collins, Colorado
Affiliate Faculty, Dept. Environmental' Health, Colorado State University
John Snyder, M.S.
Graduate Research Assistant.
Dept. Environmental Health, .Colorado State University
John Trent
Public Works Director
City of Las Animas, Colorado
INTRODUCTION
Constructed wetlands are currently receiving considerable attention in
the Rocky Mountain Region, and nationally, as a means of providing lower cost,
ecologically sound wastewater treatment for smaller communities. Constructed
wetlands are particularly being examined as a tertiary treatment process to
upgrade existing treatment processes, particularly lagoons.
There are approximately 400 NPDES permitted domestic wastewater treatment
lagoons in Colorado, many of which don't consistently meet their discharged
effluent quality for BODY and TSS. A recent study showed that the most common
cause of poor quality treated effluent for a domestic waste lagoon in Colorado
was algae overgrowth in the lagoon and loss of algae to the final effluent as
BOD5 and TSS (M. Richard and M. Van Mouwerik, "Causes of Poor Effluent Quality
for Colorado Domestic Waste Treatment Lagoons", presented at the RMWPCA's
Annual Meeting, Jackson, WY, Sept., 1991). Some form of effluent algae
removal is needed by many of these domestic waste .lagoons to meet their
discharged effluent. quality for BOD5 and TSS.
The City of Las Animas, Colorado, operates a facultative (non -aerated)
lagoon for domestic wastewater treatment, originally constructed in 1957 and
upgraded in 1983 to accommodate a daily average wastewater flow of 0.30 MGD.
The system consists of 4 cells totaling 41.6 surface acres at a depth of 4
feet and an average hydraulic detention time of 270 days. This lagoon system
has had consistent summertime problems in meeting its treated effluent quality
of BODe = 30 mg/L and TSS = 75 mg/L. Extensive studies of the system showed
that algae overgrowth in the system and discharge of these to the final
effluent in the summertime to be responsible for poor effluent quality. No
control of algae overgrowth could be obtained through operational modes due to
the -long detention time, shallow lagoons, and a highly mineralized water
33

quality that all contribute to extensive algae growth. Some form of effluent
tertiary treatment was needed to remove algae from the final effluent in order
to meet effluent quality. Given the limited resources of a small community
such as Las Animas, an algae removal method was needed that was cost-
effective and able to be operated with a limited amount of manpower.
Constructed wetlands were chosen as the most promising method to achieve algae
removal. Questions arose as to the design of constructed wetlands
specifically for algae removal and for operation in Colorado's cold climate._
A pilot study was undertaken between the City of Las Animas, RBD
Engineering Consultants, and the Department of Environmental Health, Colorado
State University (CSU) to design and construct 4 pilot scale constructed
wetlands for algae removal, each differing in design, and to operate these for
a two year period to find the best design. Following completion of this two
year study, a final wetlands design will be recommended, based on the pilot
study results.
This paper presents the results of the initial 10 months of operation of
the pilot scale wetlands in providing tertiary treatment of algae -laden lagoon
effluent at Las Animas, Colorado.
Design and Operation of the Pilot Scale Constructed Wetlands
Four pilot scale constructed wetlands were built and put into operation
in October, 1991 to treat lagoon effluent at the City of Las Animas. A
summary of the design features is given in Table 1. Each of the four wetlands
are 20 X 40 feet in dimension and 3 feet deep with a 2% slope across the
wetlands. Each is lined with plastic and the treated effluent is pumped back
to the lagoon. Each receives 1000 GPD lagoon effluent, carefully controlled
and measured and adjusted daily. Each was planted with 200 cattails placed on
two foot centers, harvested locally.
Four different pilot scale wetlands were built. One is a surface flow
system (W4) while three are subsurface flow systems (K2-W4), differing in
gravel size as given in Table 1. The rationale for these selections was to
compare surface versus subsurface flow systems and to evaluate the performance
of different gravel sizes. The size of the pilot scale wetlands and the
choice of hydraulic loading were based on an anticipated solids (algae)
maximum loading of 5 gm/MZ/day. This value was selected based on a review of
intermittent sand filtration performance for algae removal and selection of a
value not causing plugging for an extended period of time. The primary
concern in the wetlands' design was for gravel plugging, given the nature of
the solids to be removed (algae). A fundamental question posed by this
research was whether the gravel size should be large, to prevent plugging, or
small, to maximize algae removal.
Analytical Testing
Each of the pilot scale wetlands' effluents and the influent lagoon eff-
luent were routinely sampled and tested for a number of inorganic, organic and
microbiological parameters, given in Table 1. This testing was initially
performed monthly for the first 6 months of operation, then twice a month
thereafter (continuing now). All analyses are being conducted at CSU in the
2

Dept. of Environmental Health or by the CSU Soils Testing Laboratory. CSU
personnel are inspecting and sampling the systems once per month with the in-
between sampling- being done by City of Las Animas personnel with overnight
shipping of refrigerated samples to CSU.
Results
Cattail Development
The cattails remained dormant (brown) following planting through the
winter. Cattail growth started in March and these developed rapidly through
July to five feet in height, shown in Figure 1. Cattail development was equal
for the surface system and two of the subsurface systems (w4, and K2 and w3,
respectively), but was less for the coarse gravel subsurface system M) (this
system had a 6 inch layer of fine gravel over its surface). There was
a problem in cattail development on the coarse gravel strata that could limit
its use in a full scale system.
Initial Operation Period
Since the pilot scale wetlands were placed in operation in October,
little plant development and treatment .was expected for the initial operation
period through the winter. The water level was maintained at the gravel
surface 'for the subsurface systems and raised from the normal operating level
of 6 inches to 12-16 inches for the surface system during the freezing period
(December -February). No problems were encountered due to freezing. The
lagoon effluent and the surface wetland operated at 1C in December -February
while the subsurface systems never fell below 4C for the same time period.
Algae removal by the surface wetland was negligible during the initial 6
months of operation, due to immature plant development and the lack of
sufficient plants to provide adequate "straining". Algae removal by the
subsurface systems. was excellent, >90% algae removal, within one day of
starting flow and this removal has been maintained consistently thereafter.
This excellent algae removal by the newly constructed subsurface wetlands
demonstrated that algae settling and removal in the quiescent environment of
the subsurface gravel is a major algae removal mechanism even without the
added algae removal mechanisms due to microbiological growth (biofilm trapping
and biodegradation).
The algae concentration, BODs and TSS in the wastewater being treated
(lagoon effluent) are shown in Figure 2. Algae were present at significant
amounts (at or above 1 X 105/mL) in the lagoon effluent throughout the study
period, increasing dramatically to over 106/mL in May and June (and continuing
through the summer). The lagoon effluent exceeded 30 mg/L BODs after March
(which continues) and exceeded 75 mg/L TSS for all months but December due to
algae growth in the lagoon. The increase in lagoon effluent BODs and TSS
coincident with increased algae numbers is clearly shown in Figure 2.
The performance of the pilot scale wetlands in algae removal is shown in
Table 2 for the initial phase of startup operation (before extensive plant
growth). Algae were consistently reduced by more than 90% (often to 99%) by
the subsurface systems (Table 2). The surface system (w4) did not yield good
algae removal and even increased the algae counts, due to algae growth in the

surface flow system. This failure of the surface flow system to remove algae
was. due in part to an immature plant development which could change as the
plants develop into a denser stand in the future.
TSS removal by the wetlands for the period March through June is shown in
Figure 3. The surface wetland NO did not remove TSS to any significant
extent compared to the influent wastewater (WO). All three subsurface
wetlands (W1, W2 and W3) significantly reduced the TSS to values consistently
meeting the system's effluent standard (75 mg/L TSS). There didn't appear to
be any difference in TSS removal among the three subsurface systems, each
differing in gravel size. The solids comprising the TSS were quite different
among the systems, based on microscopic characterization of these solids.
Solids (TSS) in the influent and surface system NO were almost all algae
cells. Solids in the three subsurface system effluents consisted mostly of
general organic and inorganic debris and significant amounts of elemental,
colloidal sulfur with low amounts of algae cells.
Established Operation, July, 1992
A summary of the effluent values obtained for the three subsurface
wetlands along with the lagoon effluent (wetlands influent) for July, 1992 is
given in Table 3. This month was chosen as representative of current
operation with good plant development. Performance of the wetlands should
continue to improve as the plants develop further. Data for the surface flow
system are not shown as sampling of this system has been suspended temporally
due to poor performance in algae removal (sampling will resume when the plants
develop more fully).
Following is a brief discussion of the data shown in Table 3. All three
subsurface systems gave essentially the same performance and will be discussed
here together. It should be noted that, to date, no indication of wetlands
plugging has been observed, irrespective of gravel size used.
As given earlier, all three of the subsurface wetlands removed almost all
of the algae present in the influent. Compared to the lagoon effluent,
significant chemical changes occurred in the subsurface wetlands' effluents,
indicating extensive algae cell destruction (mineralization) within the
wetlands.
The pH of the wetlands' effluents decreased approximately one pH unit
compared to the influent. This was -due to extensive carbon dioxide production
during algae cell mineralization. This increased carbon dioxide production
yielded a significant increase in effluent alkalinity of approximately 200
mg/L.
.Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the wetlands' effluents were low,
<1.0 mg/L, however, sufficient dissolved oxygen was present to not have septic
conditions (no significant odor was observed). Substantial elementai,
colloidal sulfur was present in the effluents, indicating extensive use of
sulfate as an oxygen source by sulfate reducing bacteria in the mineralization
(degradation) of algae. Sulfate concentrations decreased 300 to 500 mg/L-
within the subsurface systems, supporting sulfate respiration as a major
source of "oxygen" in algal cell degradation.
n
IL

BODs and TSS removal by all three subsurface systems was good, producing
an effluent meeting the system's discharge parameters (30 mg/L BOD5 and 75
mg/L TSS). Algae removal was >94% for these samples. The BOD5 remaining in
all subsurface effluents was primarily particulate (filterable) with low
soluble BODs being present. This particulate BODs was composed not of algae
cells, but of particulate organic debris (dead algae parts).
Further evidence of extensive algae degradation and mineralization in the
subsurface wetlands is shown by an increase in ammonia and total phosphorus
M in the wetlands' effluents. Apparently, algal mineralization is releasing
inorganic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus to the wetlands' effluents. The
increase in total nitrogen (TKN) in the wetlands' effluents compared to the
influent (lagoon effluent) is due to storage of algae cells in the subsurface
systems during the colder period and mineralization of these to ammonia at
warmer temperatures.
Nitrification of released ammonia in the subsurface wetlands has been
inconsistent and, in July, nonexistent. The subsurface wetlands were oxygen
limited for nitrification in July. This was indicated by the lack of
significant dissolved oxygen ((1.0 mg/L), the lack of nitrification (nitrate),
and the finding of considerable sulfate reduction and elemental sulfur in the
wetlands' effluents. These subsurface systems are essentially -a sulfate -based
oxygen supply system at present. It awaits to be seen whether plant
oxygenation in the subsurface wetlands will play a greater role in the future
as the plants further develop. Increased plant oxygenation, if sufficient,
will be detectable by an increase in effluent nitrate.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are based on the initial 10 months of operation
of the pilot scale systems. Some of these are expected to change during the
second year of wetlands operation as the plants grow and mature and contribute
more oxygen to the subsurface. Conclusions for the initial phase of the study
are:
1. the surface wetland system has not removed algae to any significant extent,
even yielding increased algae numbers due to algae growth. This could
change in the future as the plants grow and mature.
2. the subsurface wetland systems significantly removed algae cells, generally
)95% removal, and are now producing an effluent meeting the system's
effluent requirements for BOD5 and TSS.
3. no plugging has occurred to date in the subsurface systems and all three
subsurface systems are performing about the same irrespective of gravel
size. However, the coarse gravel wetland has had poorer plant development
than for the other two finer gravel size systems, suggesting the coarse
gravel to be unsuitable for a full scale system.
4. the subsurface wetlands are currently oxygen limited, at least for nitrifi-
cation, and appear to be operating with sulfate as the major oxygen source
for algae mineralization. It awaits to be seen whether, with further plant
development, plant oxygenation in the subsurface wetlands will increase the
subsurface dissolved oxygen levels and increase nitrification.
5
37

5. extensive algae mineralization without an algae build-up is occurring in
the subsurface wetlands, evidenced by an increase in carbon dioxide,
ammonia and total phosphorus in the wetlands' effluents. These are all
expected products of complete algae mineralization and indicate development
of an active algae -degrading microbiological population in the subsurface
wetlands. In essence," the subsurface wetlands are acting as a self-cleaning
biological filter for algae.
Further Effort
This study will continue through October, 1993 (another year) in its
existing format. The second year of operation should yield final optimum
performance of the systems as the plants further develop and mature. A full
year's operation with mature plants will be presented when the study is
completed. A full scale constructed wetlands for tertiary treatment of Las
Animas lagoon effluent should be in operation by the end of 1994.

Table 1 Details of Wetlands Construction and Analytical Parameters Being
Tested.
WETLANDS CONSTRUCTION
Four Pilot Wetlands Constructed 10/4/92
Each 20 % 40 feet, 3 feet deep, 2% slope
200 cattails each, 2 foot centers
Each 1000 gpd flow
Wetland
Type
Medium
Size
W1
subsurface
coarse
4"
W2
subsurface
medium
1 1/2"
W3
subsurface
fine
3/4"
W4
surface
Inorganic
Organic
Microbiological
ANALYTICAL PARAMETERS TESTED
pH
DO
temperature
TDS
alkalinity
sulfate
chloride
BODa total
BODa particulate
BODa soluble
nitrate
ammonia
hardness
calcium
magnesium
sodium
total phosphorus
TSS
TKN
algae count and identification
sulfur bacteria
filamentous bacteria
protozoa and metazoans
n7L1 a114J tlL&.LUVU .� .3QH1VA=U U"%.0 FUL =V"L" LLVW JLaLL I.V JUIM, L'77 L.P zaaimvltlu
twice per month thereafter.
7 31

Table 2 Summary of Algae Counts and Removal in the Wetlands for the Period
March Through June. 1992.
Algae Count per mL
Date
WO
W1
W2
W3
W4
3/17/92
2.25
X
105
6.16
X
103
1.77
X
104
9.93
X
104
1.69
X
105
4/16/92
1.65
X
105
<1.54
X:102
<1.54
X
102
<1.54
X
104
1.40
X
103
5/16/92
8.37
X
105
8.47
X
102
7.70
X
102
9.39
X
103
1.51
X
106
6/2/92
1.'85
X
106
4.62
X
104
1.06
X
105
6.78
X
104
3.33
X
105
6/15/92
1.72
X
106
0.70
X
102
3.72
X
104
1.02
X
105
3.05
X
106
Percent Algae Removal
Date WO
W1
W2
W3
W4
3/17/92 -
97
92
56*
25
4/16/92 -
>99
>99
>99
15
5/16/92 -
99
99
99
increase
6/2/92 -
98
94
96
82
6/15/92 -
>99
98
94
increase
* surface flow problem.
8

Table 3. Summary of Analytical Data for 7/15/92 Wetlands Samples.
Analytical Lagoon Wetland Wetland Wetland
Parameter Effluent #1 #2 #3
PH
8.50
7.45
7.22
7.53
Dissolved Oxygen
11.7
<1.0
<1.0
<1.0
Temperature C
26
22
23
22
TLS
4588
4304
4199
4648
Alkalinity
117
322
353
395
Chloride
654
576
546
617
Sulfate
2498
2077
1985
2252
Hardness ::
1298
1258
1236
1285
Calcium
254
253
247
257
Magnesium
162
153
151
156
Sodium
972
898
878
928
NH4-N
<0.1
8.4
10.4
8.4
NO3-N
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
Total N (TKN)
2.8
11.2
13.3
12.6
Total P
1.1
1.7
1.9
1.7
TSS
204
37
33
24
BODE total
55
18
29
15
BON particulate
49
13
23
9
BOD5 soluble
6
5
6
6
Algae Count /mL
7.6 % 103
4.6 % 104
3.8 % 104
2.6 % 103
All values reported in mg/L except as noted; alkalinity and hardness re-
ported as CaCO3 equivalent.
7
Lit

Figure 1. Grovth of the Cattails in the Constructed Wetland Systems.
Wetland 1
6
S
Auerage 4
Catta i 1
Height 2
Feet
1
0
Auerage
Cattail
Height
Feet
6
S
Auerage 4
Cattail 3
Height
Feet 2
1
0
Auerage
Cattail
Height
Feet
April May June July
Wetland 2
April May June July
Wetland 3
April May June July
Wetland 4
April May June July
10

Figure 2. Algae Concentration, BOD5 and TSS in the Wetlands' Influent.
20
15
Algae
Count
per mL 10
X105
5
0
200
150
mg/L 100
50
0
algae
11/14 12/16 1/21 2/16 3/17 4/16 5/16 6/2 6/15
BODt
11/14 12/16 1/21 2/16 3/17 4/16 5/16 6/2 6/15
11
u3

Figure 3. TSS in the Wetland Systems• Effluents for the Period March Through June, 1992.
N TSS
MgA
25�
CO
15
10
E
W2
W1
W3
3/17 4/16 5/16 6/2 6/15
Date

Il
S
E
c
578
U
0 6 12 le 24 6 12 18 24
tight Day Night Day Mght
Figure 1, Diurnal Oxygen. Concentration in a Lagoon,
NOTE The graph indicates that the lowest dissolved oxygen levels occur early in the morning due to the oeroblc bacteria
and algoe utilizing oxygen during the night. The highest dlssoiveci oxygen level is late In the afternoon due to algal
photosynthesis. It Is likely the aerators must run more at night to compensate for the algae metabolizing oxygen. It Is
Important to Insure proper aerator operation during the day for adequate mixing and to eliminate potential stratification.

140
H .90
}
a
0
z
w
F- so
.0
x
C
o to zc
MEAN POND TEMPERATURE. -C
Figure 2. Effluent Coliform MPN/100 mL for a Single Facultative Lagoon as a
Function of Time and Temperature. Initial Coliform HPN was 108/100
ML.
14

Figure 3. Example Troubleshooting Data for a Domestic Waste Three Cell Lagoon
System in Effluent BODS Violation Due to Algae Overgrowth
Total BOD5 Soluble BODS
BOD5,
mgiL
BODS,
mg/L
Alk.:
mg/L
DO,
mg/L
BOD5,
mg/L
Inf 1 2 3
Particulate BODS
TSS,
mg/L
Inf 1 2 3
Alkalinity
pH
Inf 1 2 3
Dissolved Oxygen
Inf 1 2 3
TSS
Inf 1 2 3
pH
Inf 1 2 3
Algae Count per mL
Inf 1 2 3
15
1 2 3
47

PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSES
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
I. Odors 1. organic overload
L increase aeration capacity
2. poor aeration or mixing
2. alter aerator running time— change or
supplement type of aeration
3.* previous ice -covered lagoons
3. increase aerator running time, change
type of aerator to eliminate ice cover
4; duckweed growth
4. increase aerator running time,
chemical treatment, physical
removal (harvest), add ducks or geese
weed growth along--
phjysicad removal by pulling, mowing,
lagoon banks harboring flies
burning, or chemical treatment
and mosquitoes, trapping --
-- and organics
state
EL Poor BOD, Removal 1. organic overloading
L. increase aeration capacity
2. short- circuiting
1 improve inlet -outlet conditions, add babies.
add recirculation to improve mixing, aad or
improve aeration or lagoons
3. ice covered lagoon
3. change or add aerator
4, recent reduction in lagoon temp
4. increase hydraulic detention time
5. algal bloom
S. increase mechanical mixing, add physical
shade, floatim: :-over such as swim'ining pool
cover, Styrofoam sheets or balls, duckweed
I cover, addition of algal predator such as
Daphnia. add chemicals (copper sulfate),
addition of constructed wetlands to
polish eflluent
UL High effluent TSS- I- sdgaibloom
L sec algal bloom solution above-
2- -excessive lagoon mixing or
2. see short-,drcuiting above
short-circuiting
3. spring or fail turnover
3. add different types of aeration to eliminate
stratification oradd supplemental aeration
excessive solids buildup in., •4.
physically remove solids by pump or sludge
bottoms of lagoons
-.'bargr- -proper sludge disposal in conformance
-with and federal regulations
IV. Poor fecal coliform. 1. chlorine residual too low or 1. increase chlorine feed rate, provide 40-1 1:w
removal poor chlorine contact chamber ratio, provide adequate flash mixing, provide a
design minimum 30 min. detention time at peak flow
2. increase in chlorine demanding 2. remove solids from chlorine chamber,
substances in effluent increase chlorine feed rate
(H.,S, NO=)
.3. water fowl contamination 3. increase chlorine feed rate
V.. High pH vala dioxide' = r_'sWalgal blocin solution above
bicarbonate kalictitp
VL Low pH values 1. accumulation of organic sludge; 1. physically remove sludge by -pumping or
stuck in the "acid phase" sludge dredge
2. extensive nitrification 2, increase aerator running time, add
recirculation
3. organic overloading 3. increase aeration capacity, add recirculation
4. excessive Daphnia growth 4. increase aeration capacity or aerator running
time

Inlig AMA
SOLIDS TYPES PRESENT INDICATED PROBLEMS)
L raw wastewater solids or sludge particle - short-circuiting
- - poor aeration and improper waste stabilization
- sludge buildup and need for sludge removal
2. treatment solids - organic overloading or sludge accumulation
3.. filamentous bacteria - ` x certain types indicate low dissolved oxygen and sulfides; — . .. .......... .
improved aeration or mixing are needed
4, sulfur bacteria - low dissolved oxygen and sulfide production; also may be
related to influent water quality (high sulfate groundwater)
S. algae =algal overgrowth; most common cause of high effluent -
- 'solids and BOD, In the summertime
LAGOON ODOR MICROSCOPIC PROBLEM SOLUTION
APPEARANCE OBSERVATION
dear . none' little suspended material none none
. ....u_...v...._.. r_.. -.`-L __ r..-.:r:r- i� .._-.EYS-:.�- �.•_•/1 t1T ... +. - s...-:J _ .�.._ Ja.•
brown earthy small bacterial flocs none; usually none
good operation
s•?rT._. ..^n-• \!i i,!Y�iaafP•ei+,_tis!°RA..' .T-_.r-fSl++*,.._•+_-
grey -black .septic -sewage precipitatedsniffdesiritlocs, �' organicoverlulding; increasearratiou
enm filamentous sulfur bacteria• raw dissolved oxygen.. :capacity, add baffles.
_�.. influent sludge _ or additional cells
�- - - sbort-circm oz improve inlet -outlet
y
r
design, recirculatlom_
remove sledge.
_iµ .. :" ♦ +.0 Y2 -_„e} r -• s �,_c_ _rY'- _>i+. } accmmn.L tt1Qn ,Y
._���"xLe4rir - 3._'• �__ a,.�a s sC .y�Y2ran3.�sI .. I a. _ _ _ _ sa.'aJo4=�` •; _ _ L`.'Lr`.�+a':Je..f"..-rt wE' - ..,L.��..__ •_
green grassy/earthy green algae bloom algal bloom, pH often see algal bloom
>9; long detention solution (Table 1)
time; organic
underloading
- 4.- .,n '.{ _ .._ .r+.•e awl-w.m-.s�sT4..-1.�'�'^-mow r :•e'K=. as -. .� w ;!. ;_d•�. . aS- s-
gz;4pr =, bloom r removea9scafi-ota,
l . c ..' n �'rt � �"' _ � � r - •a" a ., f�tpYy� decrease , '
n .2 T r -.?i. s? y%'r.'ac'3x s''` -rn •:�.Y r z sF .rt4f'-t. .t'�H .trz r 'a s-� �.y*c "t'_111�oZif' e'
water depth to
.> t,;,,;`-t-- .:;.y i`'• A.
.w . r _e. .��,•j r. `-' -.. .decrease hydraulic
' l M" '+ ti Tt ] ae -•• - i { {L % C ` dUCLt�YY.l1Lle�
-I V:tx .r �y`•x -'. �`_ _ 7 Af v:
t_ � S, y .a]F•t T. ---•rt 4 S _."` iti'•• �� -_ L. ,�.? #.y -G < .'-]1tY S'` •'_'a'L - K ')•- -�' f .CCAU TyIyO�NL-�1 AY �
•r- r ; ice.... �-_, �:. .. ,.r..-:�•y,� �.r,.y�tx ••.,F � -..�:� a- •.� i..r^ �r%'z� ,{; . a _ .:� � �... , Y -,,. •
�
''ALGALBLOOW ` ''^a„a..J* r sa-T* i-.�•f`,--tea ��'4�-.a } v i- z-w�. 2u •F-.si z .i 3.-. -
.^' !' � •ax"- _+lt .ct7a:; :..:: ir.ea s. "C'r -'•"� rs• �.,,,�►: ..�...+_�. i >-J_-_.r .ta'isa- '`t. s^ wa..•--.a¢-
red streaks none or septic high amounts of Daphnia Daphnia overgrowth, increase aerator
often after algal running time,
bloom ya recirculate
entirely red; r (rottetrb .sulfur bacteria :- r anaerobic! gross .,K ~' aerat
Legg -odor); ; (chrVmatium sp) ,�. organic overloading-. :: running tame oi,: rr
-
�^ w f y andundei+. r �tion.: fncreas�caeratJon ` x
r,a Y Y •.•� r. i - 1 V +iirtw+_�j �..i•4M' . '._.y ��'.:: �-_. � - • .cbai✓ 1
�i_ w{ �- �.fi{ ♦ �" Tl. t.'. t .' r :��- ti".-.`.t'-. < l-R1i1�1211.F
.yti � ,.,�:.e. �..•i .4• F � e�.�- Yr� � `l`�.Yiiti _ .�.�.� rTl"V .M•y. _h1 •K ? y.T lI•'� �' +i-i ��aK
^`' �s .l'-Jf._''_•q_v iy. .0 "". ..... .Sc r.. ✓ ,�;.X.n._•-5• aua �....,. _r.� ,
17 ��

TABLE 4. SOLUTIONS TO ALGAE OVERGROWTH PROBLEMS IN WASTE TREATMENT LAGOONS.
TYPE OF ALGAE REMOVAL OR CONTROL METHOD DESCRIPTION
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
1. Land Application Systems
a. slow rate infiltration
similar to conventional irrigation practices
effective for algae removal
labor intensive
such as sprinkler or flood irrigation
crop harvesting offsets cost
require large land area
nutrients may also be removed
may only be used seasonally in
some areas
b, rapid infiltration
intermittent flooding of shallow basins filled
effective for algae removal
labor intensive
with relatively coarse material
less land area required
must be protected in cold
climates
c. overland flow
effluent is applied to gently sloping fields on
nutrients may also be removed
less effective for algae removal
impermeable soils
2. Effluent Filtration Processes
r
00 a. intermittent sand
concrete or lined earthen basin filled with specific
very effective in removing algae
expensive for small systems
filtration
filtration media and an underdrain collection system
relatively small Land area needed
labor (operation) intensive
operated intermittently (multiple basins required)
need protection in cold climates
b. rock dike filters
the Lagoon effluent discharges through a rock bed or
inexpensive
often poor performance due to
dike; algae settle onto the rock surfaces and are
low 0 B M requirements
plugging and anaerobic condi-
biologically degraded
tions with effluent degradation
c. effluent microstrainers
these are stainless steel or fabric mesh materials
simple add -on device
can be labor intensive due to
with specific pore sizes, often to 1 um
relatively inexpensive
plugging and the need to clean
d. high rate direct
conventional rapid sand and multimedia filtration
effective for algae removal
expensive
filtration
labor intensive
I
3. Mechanical and Chemical Coagulation -Clarification
a. chemical coagulation and time, alum or ferric salts are added to the effluent effective for algae removal expensive and labor intensive
clarification to destabilize and coagulate algae; solids produced sludge disposal necessary
are removed by sedimentation of filtration (above) -

Table 4, continued.
b. flotation
c. centrifugation
4. Chemical Addition
a. copper sulfate
�_j b. chlorine
c. algae destruct unit
5. In Pond Controls
algae are removed from the effluent by fine air effective for algae removal
bubble flotation, usually with an assisting polymer small area needed
simple add -on process
algae are removed from the effluent by a mechanical simple add -on device
or air driven centirfuge operated continuously small area needed
applied to lagoon cells by bag dragging or spraying; inexpensive and effective
toxic to algae at specific copper concentrations
chlorine applied prior to or in the polishing pond inexpensive
aids algae settling helps BOD and TSS removal
an underground, baffled tank where the effluent is can be cost-effective
contacted with chlorine; algae are killed and settle
a. controlled discharge ponds effluent is discharged only during seasonal periods batch treatment, testing and dis-
of low algae growth charge of effluent ensures meeting
discharge requirements
b. total containment ponds evaporation or infiltration equals influent waste- no surface discharge
water flow; no discharge I
high cost
high 0 & M requirements
sludge disposal necessary
performance not known
sludge disposal necessary
must be applied before algae
growth, not after
overdosing kills all biotife
copper may buildup in sludge
copper must be monitored for in
the final effluent
if overdosed, may kill algae and
actually increase effluent BOD
if overdosed, effleunt BOB may
increase
sludge removal necessary
Large land area needed for
effluent holding
large land area needed
not suitable in wet climates
c. variable depth effluent effluent from the final lagoon cell can be dis- effective when algae stratification ineffective at turnover times
drawoff charged from various depths; the operator can occurs testing for the cleanest layer
select discharge from the cleanest layer must be done

N
O
Table 4, continued.
d. chemical light shading
e. physical light shading
6. Biological Control
a. invertebrates
b. aquaculture
c. autoflocculation
7. Constructed Wetlands
a. constructed wetlands
dyes (Aquashade) can be added that block specific efficient and cost-effective
wavelengths of light used by algae
a greenhouse fabric material can be installed on
or over final lagoon cells to block light and re-
duce algae growth
Daphnia, rotifers and other invertebrates may be
specifically added to lagoons to prey upon algae
water hyacinth and duckweed (Lemna) can be used
to limit algae growth, primarily by light shading
effective
relatively inexpensive
biological control
effective
Little operation needed
certain species of algae (e.g. Chlorella) may floc effective
together to form floating algae blankets at certain
growth conditions
can only be used in non -
discharging systems; not legal
to discharge to public waters
difficult to install
subject to weather damage
Limited to small systems
invertebrates must be separately
cultured and available when
needed
difficult to control
Labor intensive: the plants
must be harvested
not suitable in cold climates
difficult to maintain specific
algae culture
difficult to get correct auto -
flocculation conditions
an engineered and constructed wetlands replaces the subsurface systems effective proper design for algae removal
Lagoon polishing pond for effluent polishing at algae removal and degradation needed
replaces the polishing pond and no potential for plugging and odors
new land area needed

r-j
kD
Table 4, continued.
b. flotation algae are removed from the effluent by fine air effective for algae removal
bubble flotation, usually with an assisting polymer small area needed
simple add -on process
c. centrifugation algae are removed from the effluent by a mechanical simple add -on device
or air driven centirfuge operated continuously small area needed
4. Chemical Addition
a.copper sulfate applied to lagoon cells by bag dragging or spraying; inexpensive and effective
toxic to algae at specific copper concentrations
b. chlorine chlorine applied prior to or in the polishing pond inexpensive
aids algae settling helps B00 and TSS removal
c. algae destruct unit an underground, baffled tank where the effluent is can be cost-effective
contacted with chlorine; algae are killed and settle
high cost
high 0 B M requirements
sludge disposal necessary
performance not known
sludge disposal necessary
must be applied before algae
growth, not after
overdosing kills all biolife
copper may buildup in sludge
copper must be monitored for in
the final effluent
it overdosed, may kill algae and
actually increase effluent Boo
if overdosed, effleunt B00 may
increase
sludge removal necessary
S. In Pond Controls
a. controlled discharge ponds
effluent is discharged only during
seasonal periods
batch treatment, testing and dis-
large land area needed for
of low algae growth
charge of effluent ensures meeting
effluent holding
discharge requirements
b. total containment ponds
evaporation or infiltration equals
influent waste-
no surface discharge
large land area needed
water flow; no discharge
not suitable in wet climates
c. variable depth effluent
effluent from the final lagoon cell
can be dis-
effective when algae stratification
ineffective at turnover times
drawoff
charged from various depths; the operator can
occurs
testing for the cleanest layer
select discharge from the cleanest
layer
must be done

Table 4,;continued_
r
d. chemical light shading
dyes (Aquashade) can be added that 'block specific
efficient and cost-effective
can only be used in non -
discharging systems; not legal
wavelengths of light used by algae
to discharge to public waters
e. physical light shading
a greenhouse fabric material can be installed on
effective
inexpensive
difficult to install
subject to weather damage
j
or over final lagoon cells to block light and re-
relatively
Limited to small system
duce algae growth
6. Biological Control
a. invertebrates '
D ia, rotifers another d othinvertebrates may be
biological control
invertebrates must be separately
cultured and available when
sppecifically added to lagoons to prey upon algae
eci
needed
difficult to control
b. aquaculture
water hyacinth and duckweed (Lean) can be used
effective
labor intensive: the plants
to limit algae growth, primarily by light shading
little operation needed
must be harvested
•,not suitable in cold climates
bi
O
c. autoflocculation
certain species of algae (e.g. Chtorella) may floc
effective
difficult to maintain specific
together to form floating algae blankets at certain
algae culture
growth conditions
difficult to get correct auto -
'flocculation
conditions
7. Constructed Wetlands
a. constructed wetlands an engineered and constructed wetlands replaces the subsurface systems effective proper design for algae removal
Lagoon polishing pond for effluent polishing at algae removal and degradation needed
replaces the polishing pond and no potential for plugging and odors
new land area needed
t

Denitrification
Reduction of nitrates
to gaseous nitrogen by
bacteria e.g. pseudo
monas
Nitrate formation
(Nitrification)
Nitrite oxidized to
nitrate by Nitrobacter
Nitrite formation
Ammonia oxidized to
nitrite by Nitrosomonas
Ammonia formation
(Ammonification)
Amino acids deaminated
by many microorganisms.
Ammonia one of the end
products of this process
NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen
(Atmospheric)
Nitrogen fixation
Atmospheric nitrogen
fixed by many micro-
organisms e.g.Rhizobium,
Nitrate serves as plant foo Organic nitrogen formation
"Fixed" nitrogen utilized b
plants --converted to plant
protein;plants consumed by
Many heterotropic animals; snimals proteins,
species reduce nitrate etc. formed
to ammonia via nitrite
Microorganisms utilize'
ammonia as nitrogen
source and synthesize`
cellular proteins
Soil Organic Nitrogen
Excretion products of
animals, dead animals and
plant tissue deposited in
,s-o i 1 .
Organic nitrogen degradation
Proteins, nucleic acids etc.,
attacked by. a wide variety of
microorganisms, complete:
breakdown, yields mixtures of
smino acids.
RMN

KET D
0

ducating the public about their role in today's water quality issues is the focus of
the Water Environment Federation's brochures. Designed to fit into a #10 enve-
lope, the brochures are useful as information mailers, bill inserts, meeting and
exhibit handouts, and plant tour and school program handouts. For a complimenta-
ry sample of any brochure, please call 1-800-666-0206.
Customized Brochures
Several of these brochures can be custom printed with your organizations name,
address, or specific concerns. For further information, call the Public Affairs
Department at 1-703-684-2400.
vBiosolids: Too Valuable To Waste
This brochure explains that the material we wash
down our drains is not waste, but a valuable age-old
resource for enriching the soil. Citizens will learn
about biosolids management in their communities,
how they can become advocates for recycling, and
beneficial uses of biosolids products.
Order No. Quantity
Price
H8888GA Under 1,000
$.20 each
1,000 to 4,999
.19 each
5,000 to 9,999
.18 each
10,000 to 24,999
.16 each
25,000 and up
.14 each
Nonpoint Source Pollution: You Are
the Key to the Cleanup.
Nonpoint source pollution kills wildlife and closes
beaches, yet many people don't know what it is.
Designed for the general public, this brochure
describes nonpoint source pollution and its impact
on the environment. And through an illustrated
action guide, the brochure details steps that the
average person can take to control this insidious
form of pollution.
Clean Water: A Bargain At Any Cost
The way clean water is paid for is changing. This
piece will give citizens an understanding of how this
will happen and what it means to them. It will help
you explain your organization's commitment to
continue to provide clean, safe, and affordable
water.
Order No. Quantity
Price
H3333GA Under 1,000
$.20 each
1,000 to 4,999
.19 each
5,000 to 9,999
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25,000 and up
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HH440GA Under 1,000
$.20 each
1,000 to 4,999
.19 each
5,000 to 9,999
.18 each
10,000 to 24,999
.16 each
25,000 and up
.14 each
From Outside U.S. & Canada Call 1-703-684-2452 or Fax Your Order to 1-703-684-2492.

-7z
j Bottom Line'
`64
r�
BROCHURES
Nature's Way: How Wastewater
Treatment Works For You
More than a million copies of this brochure have
been distributed to municipalities, corporations, and
consultants who want to provide consumers with an
overview of the wastewater treatment process.
Order No. Quantity Price
Z1109GA Under 1,000 $.20 each
1,000 to 4,999 .19 each
5,000 to 9,999 .18 each
10,000 to 24,999 .16 each
25,000 and up_ . .14_each
i
Price
Household Hazardous Waste: What
.
;Order No. Quantity'
You Should & Shouldn't. DO =
H1111GA Under1;000
$.20 each
1,000 to 4,999
.19 each
Safety disposing of household hazardous waste is:•'-•.
5,000 to 9,999
.18 each: `
the focus of this brochure. Includes a color -coded '
10,000. to 24,999
.16 each
reference guide on how to dispose of over 70 com-''
25,000 and up
.14 each
mon household materials, a'rundown on the best
ways to reduce household hazardous waste, and
look at the pros and cons of current disposal meth`,"
ods.
w
t.
Groundwater: Why You Should Care
This colorful brochure explains where groundwater
comes from and where it is found in easy -to -under-
stand terms. Gives citizens practical information on
., how individuals and society can help in preventing
groundwater contamination.
Order No. Quantity Price
H2222GA Under 1,000 $.20 each
1,000 to 4,999 .19 each
5,000 to 9,999 .18 each
p 10,000 to 24,999 . .16 each
25,000 and up .14 each
Hazardous. Waste Reduction:
The Bottom Line
Small.businesses can learn how to save money by
reducing the amount of hazardous waste they gener-
ate. The brochure includes a step-by-step flow chart
for setting up a waste reduction program.
Municipalities and plants may wish to order large
�j quantities for business customers.
Quantity
Price
Under.1,000
$.20 each.
1,000 to 4,999
.19 each
5,000 to 9,999
.18 each _ i=
10,000 to 24,999 .16 each
25,000 and up .14 each
For Membership
Information
or
to Order
Call
Member Services Center-1-800-666-0206

Clean Water.#o Today: What is
Wastewater 66afinent?
The role of the waste-
water treatment plant
is carefully docu-
mented in this 18-
page brochure. This
detailed introduction
to wastewater treat-
ment is supported by
clear illustrations and
a complete glossary.
The publication
describes the typical publicly' owned treatment
works (POTWs) in order to give the p6blie'a clear
understanding of the water pollution:control indus-
a try' ,
Order No. Quantity Price
Z1003GA 1 to.50 copies $1.00 each
51 to 100 copies .80 each
101-to 1,000 copies .75 each
Over.1,000 copies .60 each
t-
Water Reuse: Good For Your Lawn , Quantity .— ---,Price
and Your -Wallet _-.2000-24,999 ' $:o9_each
25,000 and up `'�:08 each
Drinking water, a limited and valuable resource, is. -
wasted on uses such as lawri irrigation when
``reclaimed" water is available. This bill stuffer
explains why it is in the public's best interest to
support water reuse programs as freshwater supplies
become scarcer and more expensive to develop.
Order No.
HS1302GA
How To Dispose Of Household
Hazardous Wastes-.
These smaller "mini -brochures" are perfect for utili-
ty companies to -include in their bills or other cus-
tomer mailings. Features the popular "Household
Hazardous Waste" chart, which indicates the best
disposal methods for household materials_, in a new;'
smaller, lighter weight format. They can also be
customized with your company name and logo.
Call for pricing.
Personalized
$.15 each
.10 each
Water Reuse:
Gbbd,for Your Lawn
and Your Wallet
Order No.
HH220GA -- -- — —
Quantity, -Trice
2000-24,999 --: "$.09.each
25,000`and Sp_ '.08 each
Personalized
$.15 each
.10 each
hature's Way Video Z Let's Save Water Coldrirrg..Book
The popular Nattire's Way slide show has been Created to teach elementary school children -about
adapted to video using state-of-the-artvideo tech- the importance of water conservation. The coloring
niques. Music and computer -enhanced graphics tell book describes the story of water and illustrates the
the story of clean water. An excellent format for amount of water needed for several day-to-day
school and plant presentations. VHS only. activities. Available through WEF, courtesy of the
Order No. Z1165GA
Member Price: $45.00
Non -Member Price: $65.00
Little Rock Utility, Little Rock, Arkansas. .
Order No. Z1298GA
Price: $.35 each
20 copies for $5.00
From
Outside
U.S. &
Canada Call
1-703-684-2452 or Fax Your Order
to 1-703-684.2492.

n
H2O TV ---.!.The Water Environment Curriculum Program
20 TV —The Water Environment Curriculum Program is targeted at grades 5
through 9-4he age at which most students study water quality. Through the
Adopt -A -School , Program; WEF encourages members to donate these materials
to' local school districts.-, For more information on on sponsorin9 your school, contact
the:WEF Public Affairs De"partmentpt .1-703 684-2400.
The Groundwater Adventure, Resource'Guide, shows educators'additional activi-
The often puzzling concept of groundwater is
graphically explained using a video game format.
Dino Sorrus, WEF's animated -water quality spokes -
dinosaur, is the game -master. He helps a live-actiod-
student gain points by preventing groundwater pol-
lution from industrial, agricultural, and private resi-
dential sources.
The Groundwater Advititu*ii--LTheStudent
Resource Guide reinforces- and e"x'pands upon the-
_p concepts of how groundwater becomes . olluted,the-
challenges of cleaning it, and the student's role in
protecting our largest water supply.
The Groundwater Adventure7,-The Teacher's.
Saving Water —
The Conservation Unit,.
Imagine a visit to a museum, set sometime,in the, -
future.'. Dino Sorrus, the museum's exhibit curator,
explains how all of the earth's-water, except for one..
small vial, has been wasted or polluted- beyond use. Through computer graphics and animation students
can travel to the future to'see what can and might
happen—'unlesi. Students also learn what they can
do today.
Saving Water —The StudenrResource Guide
tak.qs'students from the.,'.'why" to''the "how" of water
conservation. Re-emphasizing the importance of
water conservation, it expands upon ways students
can help save water and presents.easy activities for
conserving water.
ties for in -class use to reinforce the basic concepts...
presented in the video. Includes glossary of terms,"
used in the video and a sample test.
Groundwater Treatment Unit
Each, package includes one VHS video, one
teacher's guide, and 20 student guides.
Order No. Price-,
VHS Package Z1268GA $49.00
PAL Format* Z1271GA $59.00
Teacher's Guide Z1270GA $ 9.00
Student Guide Z1269GA $ 1.25
Saving Water —The Teacher's Resource Guide
brings water conservation from the abstract to a
day-to-day activity. Over a dozen activities;
answers to often -asked questions, and a glossary
give educators the information they need,to help, y.
students understand their role in water conservation. r.
Saving Water —The Conservation Unit
Each package includes one VHS video, one
teacher's guide, and 20 student guides.
Order No.
Price.
VHS Package
Z1280GA
$49.00
PAL Form'a't*
Z1295GA
$59.00
Teacher's:Guide
Z1285GA
$ 9.00
Student Guide
Z1290GA
$ 1.25
1,1.nr ) - , - I !I.."'

Ilastewater treatment H20;TV
tt'inncr of AnrcrrcEtir'Sixteh of Asso— tion -
Executives' 1988 Gold Circle Award and U.S.
Industrial Film & Video Festival Silver Screen
Award.
Starting with a "music video" style introduction;'
a combination of live action and Dino Sorrus,
WEF's animated water quality spoke"s-dinosaur,
present a complete examination of the wastewater
treatment process.- Students will he entertained and
challenged into understanding water quality issues.
Wastewater Treatment The Student Resource
Guide provides a comprehensive look at wastewater
treatment.
Surface Wrater Unit
First place winner of Television Association Contest.
From an explanation of how the water cycle, .
works to.a look,at today',s-water quality issues, this -
video presents a thorough overview of this.valuable
resource. Dino Sorrus, WEF's animated wateK,qual-
ity spokes -dinosaur, introduces live -action students -
reporting on the state of thday's-surface water quali-
ty. The video provides students=With ideas for how
they can lessen or prevent water pollution. -
Surface Water —The Student Resource Guide
gives students an appreciation of the how nature and
people work together to protect our precious
surface water.
Wastewater Treitment—The"riciier'ti`
Resource Guide is a c, ►refull� or�(atmicd �wde Ica-: L,
:(uring activities, a summary of the student guide, a
glossary, and a sample test.
Wastewater Treatment Unit
Each package include. Qne WS video, one
teacher's guide, and 20 student guides.
Order No. Prioe ,k- t
VHS Package!,.. Z1210GA,:. $49,00 77=
PAL Format*,' r1215Gp $59.00
Teacher's Giiide Z1190GA; $ 9.00
Student Guidi• ' 1`1200GA $ 1.25
Surface Water— The Teacher's Resource Guide
provides a step-by-step approach for classroom
teachers to follow. 'Provides students with a scien-
tific overview`s 1i+tll;as current surface water quali-
ty issues.
Surface-Wate:uni;
Each pAckage-inclttdes one VHS video, one
teacher's guide;:andZO student guides.
Order No. Price
VHS Package' Z1240GA $49.00
PAL Format* �, Z1255GA;• $59.00
Teach er° Gutda Z1220GA $ 9.00
Student Ouide _ Z1230GA $ 1.25
* PAL is an international video format.
This order will include one PAL video, one teacher's guide?ang 20-stOdent guides.
V
Teachers, Curriculum -SOcia(rsfs,
Resource Coordinators
All of WEF's Water Environment Curriculum
videos may be ordered through New Dimension
Me orth American distributor. New
D mension Me is may be reached at 85803 Lorane
ighway, Eugene. OR 97405, or call toll-free,
-800-288-4456.
T-shirts
From WEF's award-winhin video curriculum . ,.
series, the colorful H,)0-TV logo is brightly air-
brushed on white cotton T-shirts.
Size Order No. Member Price Non -Member Price
Adults XL N0024GA $12.00 $15.00
Child's M (10-12) N0025GA $10.00 $13.00
Child's L (12-14) N0026GA $10.00 $13.00
From Outside U.S. & Canada Call 1-703-684-2452 or Fax Your Order to 1-703-684.2492.
67

d,
Careers in Water Quality Brochure
Designed for high school students, this brochure
covers a variety of career opportunities in water
quality. It describes engineering, management,
operations, research, regulation, and public interest
Opportunities. Explains the interests, skills, and
educational training required for each career. Can
be used alone or to supplement the "Careers in
Water Quality" video.
areers in Water Quality Video
Helps intermediate and high school students explore
the diverse and exciting career opportunities in all
aspects of the water quality field. Features profes-
sionals discussing their jobs and the expanding
opportunities in the profession. Students are
encouraged to consider how their own skills and
interests, applied to a career in water quality, could
truly make a difference. VHS only.. 16 minutes.
Order No. Z1400GA
Member Price: $49.00
Non -Member Price: $79.00
Order No. Quantity Price
HH330GA Under 50
$.30 eac SI
50 to 99
.25 each
100 to 999
.20 each
1,000 and up
.15 each
Coming Soon!!'
The 1993 Wastewater Treatment
Plant Operator's Salary.Survey..
Watch Federation Highlights for
publication date..
68

Table of Contents
--------------------------
I
Acknowledgments............................................................................. 1
II
Executive Summary.......................................................................... 3
IIIIntroduction
....................................................................................... 7
IV
Issue Highlights...............................................................................
10
V
Planning Process............................................................................
14
VI
Vision and Goals............................................................................
16
VII
Natural Resources..........................................................................
24
VIII
Land Use and Urban Design..........................................................
35
IX
Transportation................................................................................
42
X
Community Infrastructure..............................................................
50
XIHousing
..........................................................................................
61
XII
Economic Development.................................................................
68
XIII
Historic Preservation......................................................................
76
)(IV
Storm and Natural Hazards .......................... :.................................
79
XV
Land Classifications/Map..............................................................
83
Appendix...................................................................................................
88
A. Definitions................................................................................
89
B. List of Available Reports.........................................................
91

I. Acknowledgments
Steering Committee
John Jefferies, Chairman
William Caster, Chairman, County Commissioners
Hamilton Hicks, Mayor, Wilmington City Council
Buzz Birzenieks, County Commissioners
Harper Peterson, City Council
Kirk Davy (1997-99), County Planning Board
Rodney Harris (1999), County Planning Board
Glenn Richardson, Chairman, Wilmington Planning
Commission
Wes Beckner, Chamber of Commerce
Carlton Fisher, Wihnington Regional Association of
Realtors
Johnnie Henagan, Council of Neighborhoods
Association
Tilghman Herring, Historic District Commission
Edward Higgins, Chairman, Board of Education
Debbie Keck, Board of Education, alternate
Jim Hunter, At -Large Representative
Jim Kenny, President, Home Builders Association
Gerry McCants, At -Large Representative
Linda Pearce, Elderhaus Representative
Ernest Puskas, Castle Hayne Area Representative
Tracy Skrabal, Environmental Representative
Special Acknowledgement
Members of Community Growth Planning & Chairman,
Bob Warwick
Citizens that participated in the Public Forums, Public
Opinion Survey, Sub -Committee Public Meetings,
Steering Committee meetings, and fall 1998 Public
Forum/Hearing
New Hanover County
Board of Commissioners
William A. Caster, Chairman
Robert G. Greer, Vice Chairman
Buzz Birzenieks
Ted Davis, Jr.
Charles R. Howell
Wilmington City Council
Hamilton E. Hicks, Jr., Mayor
Don Betz, Mayor 1981-97
Katherine B. Moore, Mayor Pro Tern
Frank S. Conlon
J. C. Hearne, II
Rose Ann Mack 1997-98
Laura Padgett 1993-97
Harper W. Peterson
Jim Quinn
Charles H. Rivenbark, Jr.
County Planning Board Members
Rodney Harris, Chairman
Kirk Davy 1997-99
McKinley Dull
Joyce Fernando
John Galarde
Michael Keenan
Robert Murphy 1997-98
Frank Smith
James E. Wolle
Wilmington Planning Commission
Glenn Richardson, Chairman
Jack Watkins, Vice Chairman
Frank Hamilton, III 1995-98
Donald M. Hand 1996-99
Rose Ann Mack
Terry Richardson
Mark Saulnier
Elaine Selden
Stephen Stein
New Hanover County
www.co.new-hanover.nc.us/
Planning Department
414 Chestnut St., Suite 304, Wilmington, NC 28401
Tel. [phone], Fax [phone]
Dexter Hayes, Director
Patrick Lowe, Assistant Director
Chris O'Keefe, Senior Planner
Wanda Coston, Planner
Sam Burgess, Planner
Grant D. Gore, Graphics Technician
Pete Avery, Senior Planner 1984-99
Phoebe Saavedra, Secretary 1989-99
Margie Titus, Intern
Bert Hatchell, Intern 1997-98
Elizabeth Adams, Intem 1997.
Mike Gutekunst, Intern 1998
Katheryn Quinelly, Intern 1997
Kim Wolfer, Intern 1996-97
Information Technology
Mike Arkinson, GIS Manager
Bruce Walker, GIS Analyst
Budget
Cam Griffin, Budget Director
Managers Office
David Weaver, Assistant County Manager
Andy Atkinson, Deputy County Manager

County Public Schools
Bill Hance, Assistant Superintendent for Operations
Engineering
Wyatt Blanchard, County Engineer
Environmental Management
Ray Church, Director
Fire Services
Phil Kouwe, Fire Services Administrator
Libraries
David Paynter, Director
Parks
Neil Lewis, Director
Sheriff
Joe McQueen, Sheriff
City of Wilmington
www.ci.wilmington.nc.us/
Planning Division
202 N. 3`d St., 4t' Floor, Wilmington, NC 28402
Tel. [phone], Fax [phone]
Wayne Clark, Planning Manager
Mark Zeigler, Planner
Bill Austin, Transportation Planner
John Ponder, Transportation Planning Engineer
Chad Ives, GIS Planner
Dorothy Chavious, Department Secretary
Deborah Haynes, Graphics Technician
Bruce Johnston, Engineering Technician
Arcelia Wicker, Director of Planning 1981-98
Ockert Fourie, Planner 1998
Mark Sudduth, Intern 1997
Zachary Taylor, Intern 1997
City Managers Office
Mike Hargett, Asst City Manager (Interim Planning
Manager 1998)
Development Management
Andrea Surratt, Development Mgmt. Manager
Kaye Graybeal, Historic Preservation Planner
Mellisa Allcox, Development Mgmt. Intern 1997-98
Eleanor Price, Historic Preservation Consultant
Jayson Ward, Planning Technician 1997-98
Paul D. Harsch, Intern 1997
Community Development
Mark Karet, Community Development Manager
Gaines Townsend, Planner
Hattie Herring, Code Enforcement Officer 1989-99
Fred Reisz, Housing Services Counselor
Bettie Bisbee, WHFD, Inc. Program Manager
Robert Lucas, WHFD, Inc. Administrator
Information Technology Services
Jim Sahlie, GIS Systems Analyst
Administration Services
Susan Dankel, Director 1975-99
Engineering
Bill Penny, City Engineer
Dave Mayes, Engineer
Police
John Cease, Chief of Police
Sharon Pulley, Captain
Public Services & Facilities
Ed Fare, Director
Public Utilities
Hugh Caldwell, Director
Fire
Sam Hill, Fire Chief
Cape Fear Community College
Eric McKeithan, President
Carl Brown, Vice President for Institutional Services
Facilitator
Robert Gerlach, President, The VTA Group
Todd Gerlach, Facilitator
N. C. Dept. of Environment & Natural Resources
— Division of Coastal Management
Zoe Bruner, District Planner
Kathy Vincent, District Planner
The preparation of this document was financed in part
through a grant provided by the North Carolina Coastal
Management Program, through funds provided by the
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended,
which is administered by the Office of Ocean and
Coastal Resource Management, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration.
• Date: July 30, 1999
2

H. Executive Summary
INTRODUCTION
Population Growth Pressures
Between 1997 and 2010 it is projected that 31,000 new people will join the population of
Wilmington and New Hanover County. This is an increase from 149,000 people in 1997 to
180,000 in 2010. The challenge for the County and City is to wisely allocate land use in the urban,
urbanizing, and rural areas for existing residents as well as projected newcomers.
Plan Background Information and Land Use Survey
The 1997-2010 Comprehensive Plan has been in the making since December 1996 when
elected officials of the City and County authorized the creation of the Plan. Throughout 1997 and
into spring of 1998 technical reports were written addressing: population; environmental
resources and constraints; existing land use; transportation; community infrastructure/fiscal
impact analysis; hurricane mitigation/reconstruction; housing; economy; and other background
information.
In October 1997 a public opinion survey of registered voters was conducted. The results
showed that the major land use issue of public concern was that the current rate of growth was
much too fast. Survey respondents also expressed the desire for more economic growth, but only
if it is the right kind of growth such as high technology industrial. Eighty nine percent of the
survey respondents expressed the desire that developers pay for infrastructure costs caused by
new development, such as roads and schools. Protection of the environment was another clear
direction of the survey.
Public Participation and Plan Guidance
In the fall of 1997 six Public Forums were held across the City and County. Input was
solicited regarding the environment, land use and design, community infrastructure,
transportation, housing, and economy. The Plan Public Forums also included participants from a
citizen driven Community Growth Planning initiative.
Throughout 1998 the Comprehensive Plan's development and continued public
participation process was guided by an 18 member Steering Committee. Jointly appointed by the
County Commissioners and City Council, the Steering Committee was comprised of community
members from diverse backgrounds including: elected officials; planning commission and board
members; business, environment, development, minorities real estate, and the school board.
The Public participation process continued into the spring of 1998 with four Public Sub -
Committees meetings which were attended by more than 70 non -appointed volunteer members.
These meetings were used to gather additional information and create draft policy statements for
the Comprehensive Plan topics. Issues and vision statements from Community Growth Planning
were also included in the Sub -Committee meetings.
During the summer and fall of 1998 the Steering Committee molded the issues and
policies generated by the Public Sub -Committees, added detailed implementation actions and
3

developed a vision statement for the Plan. In the fall of 1998 the future land use technical report
was written incorporating proposed concepts from the public and Steering Committee. In October
1998 the draft Plan was presented to City Council and the County Commissioners and was
authorized to be sent to the State for review. In the Spring and Summer 1999 the plan was
modified to address the state's review comments. Public hearing consideration and final adoption
of the Plan by the City and County is scheduled for fall 1999.
CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT
PHYSICAL PLAN GUIDE
Land Classification - Guiding Architecture for the Physical Plan
The guiding architecture for the physical Plan is provided by the land classification map.
Intensity of development ranges from urban land to the less developed rural and resource
protection areas. The land classes are: developed; urban transition; limited transition; community;
rural; conservation; and resource protection.
Natural Resources Protection
Protection and preservation of our natural resources is important to our economic and
community well being. Natural resource protection addresses water quality, open space, wetlands,
creeks rivers and flood plain, estuaries, beaches, potable water supply, air quality, agriculture and
forestry, and harvesting mineral and fishery resources.
Conservation Corridors, Greenways, Parks and Open Space
The Plan provides for conservation corridors and greenways that link and incorporate
conservation areas, key parks and open space areas. The plan encourages the development of
residential neighborhoods that provide environmentally sensitive design and an integration of
open space.
Residential Neighborhood Development
The Plan focuses on modern residential development designs and options for Traditional
Neighborhood Development with narrower tree lined streets and sidewalks that emphasize a
pedestrian orientation and scale. Diverse housing types and lot sizes are encouraged. Public
spaces such as formal public parks, village greens are desired features in the Plan.
Linking Pedestrian Friendly Business and Residential Development
The Plan envisions concentrating business and residential development in nodes, while
retaining open space. The business nodes would include highly accessible linked pedestrian
friendly commercial centers, surrounded by mixed density residential neighborhoods. Moving out
from these centers the residential densities would decrease. The Plan establishes guidelines for
creating development regulations, along with incentives, that will encourage innovation and
provide flexibility in land use development.
Urban Design for Business and Residential Neighborhood Development
The Plan addresses the recurring theme desired by our citizens for improved design
guidelines for thoroughfare landscaping and signage, pedestrian access, dedicated bicycle routes,
and pedestrian friendly shopping centers and parking lots. The Plan design guidelines address
strip commercial development and the establishment of an integrated transportation network.
4

Historic Preservation
Downtown Wilmington has inherited a unique treasure of existing historic residences and
business properties. The Plan recognizes the need to nurture and maintain this rich cultural
heritage through historic preservation guidelines.
Community Infrastructure
The Plan provides direction for community infrastructure needs including schools,
libraries, parks, sheriff and police, fire, roads, water, sewer, and storm water. Fiscal impact
analysis shows that provision of community infrastructure is cost efficient if focused within an
Urban Service Area, with the added benefit of deterring urban sprawl. Policy direction includes
how to pay for the needed community infrastructure with exploration of alternative forms of
financing. Also addressed are the improvements needed to provide a high quality level of service,
and to prevent a decline in the level of service provided to County and City residents. Paying for
community infrastructure should be fairly shared by new development and existing residents.
Transportation
The Plan acts as a guide for transportation planning. Directions include: new major and
minor thoroughfares; widening of existing streets where appropriate; the feasibility of multi -
modal transit alternatives; park and ride lots, express bus service, carpool and vanpool services;
increased rubber tired trolley service; bicycle and pedestrian pathways; and congestion
management.
Storms and Natural Hazards
The Plan addresses storms and natural hazards through emergency management plans that
provide for mitigation, evacuation, and recovery in the event of a hurricane or disaster. Recovery
management also includes the provision for a recovery task force.
HOUSING AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL NEEDS
Housing
One of the key housing components of the Plan is to increase affordable housing for low
and moderate income persons. Methods for increasing affordable housing and ownership
include: expanding existing programs; establishing a mortgage revenue bond program; and
establishing a land trust program for affordable housing land acquisition.
Other key related housing components in the Plan are: creating County minimum
housing standards and enforcement, and enhancing the City's; consolidating the City and County
Community Development Block Grant program to increase money for programs; increasing
affordable rental housing; expanding programs for the homeless population; increasing public
outreach by government on growth and development challenges; housing challenges for the
elderly and special needs population; and adequate student housing for University of North
Carolina - Wilmington and Cape Fear Community College.
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Economy
The Plan addresses the need for a coordinated economic development strategy that will
attract high paying, environmentally friendly employers to create a more diversified economy.
Another key concept of economic development in the Plan is to increase the skills level
and education of the workforce. The Plan addresses this challenge through school and work
programs of Cape Fear Community College and the County public schools. The need for
vocational education is particularly emphasized.
Other economic development needs addressed by the Plan are: improving employment
opportunities in economically distressed areas of the City and County; supporting the Wilmington
State Port's need to deepen the harbor, improve inland highway and rail access and upgrade the
terminal; support the local water dependent marine economy; support airport growth and
expansion; and encourage a diversified economy including heritage and historic preservation
tourism, boating, and eco-tourism.

III. Introduction
Background
The Wilmington City Council and New Hanover County Commissioners agreed to
jointly prepare a Comprehensive Plan in anticipation of continued growth, and in response to the
scheduled update of the Land Use Plan, as required under the provisions of the Coastal Area
Management Act (CAMA), and the Wilmington Urban Area Transportation Plan. These plans
have future land use implications for the City and County, and are coordinated through the
Comprehensive Plan.
The 1974 Coastal Area Management Act (CAMA), requires a cooperative coastal land
management program between local government and the State of North Carolina for preparing,
adopting and enforcing local land use plans. CAMA requires that local government within 20
coastal North Carolina counties prepare land use plans which provide protection, preservation,
orderly development and management.
Wilmington is classified as an Urbanized Area by the US Census Bureau. As a result of
this designation, the area is required to have a continuous transportation planning process that
encompasses the urban area around Wilmington. A Greater Wilmington Metropolitan Planning
Organization (MPO) is responsible for guiding the transportation planning. One of the main
roles of the MPO is to develop the Transportation Plan.
The Wilmington -New Hanover County Comprehensive Plan will become an official
public document of the Wilmington City Council and the New Hanover County Board of
Commissioners upon its adoption. Public hearings and adoption for the Plan are scheduled for
Fall 1999. The Plan will act as a set of long range, general guidelines for local decision making.
Upon local adoption the Plan will be officially certified by the State and used by regional, State
and Federal agencies in making project consistency determinations, funding and permit
decisions.
The Comprehensive Plan provides guidance to City and County officials in their
decisions on development plans, programs, regulations and incentives. The Plan also
communicates local government policies to interested citizens and organizations. While the
Comprehensive Plan is not statutorily binding in the sense of an ordinance, it is an important
policy document that is adopted, amended and updated by formal action of the City Council,
Board of Commissioners, and the North Carolina Coastal Resources Commission.
This Plan is the fourth update to the original Wilmington -New Hanover CAMA Land
Use Plan which was adopted by the City Council and the Board of Commissioners in 1976.
Previous updates to the original Plan in accordance with State planning guidelines occurred in
1981, 1986 and 1993.
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Purpose of the Plan
The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County have experienced a high level of
population and employment growth throughout the 1990's. This growth is exerting increasing
pressure on the City and County's ability to provide services, insure wise development of the
land, and minimize further degradation of our resources and loss of our natural landscape.
The City -County Comprehensive Plan addresses the following:
• Recognize the need and provide for effective environmental and conservation
management measures to ensure environmental protection.
• Guide and monitor land use changes as a result of development and redevelopment.
• Meet the transportation challenges with diverse solutions including automobile, bus,
bicycle and pedestrian.,
• Maintain and enhance the fiscal sustainability and community infrastructure needs.
• Support and enhance affordable housing and minimum housing programs.
• Increase efforts to improve economic diversification, and efforts to attract employers
with high paying jobs.
• Protect and nurture our historic heritage.
• Ensure citizen protection through proactive plans for hurricanes or other natural
disasters.
• Provide a land classification system and map to chart a course of growth and
development, and land conservation.
Components of the Plan
The Comprehensive Plan consists of the following sections: issue highlights; planning
process; vision and goals; issues, policies, and implementation actions; land classifications and
map. Any changes, additions, or deletions to these elements require an amendment to this Plan.
Technical reports were used to support and provide information for the public and
Steering Committee and are available from the County and City Planning offices. A title list of
available documents is included in the Appendix.
Issues
This section lists the issues of importance to the community. They were developed
through the public participation process and the guidance of the Steering Committee. The issues
relate to natural resources, land use and urban design, community infrastructure, transportation,
housing, historic preservation, economy, and storm and natural hazards.
8

Planning Process
This section contains details of the planning process for public participation and the role
of the Steering Committee. The planning process was used to create a vision and goals; identify
issues affecting the community; and create policies and implementation actions to address the
issues.
Vision and Goals
This section contains the vision and goals of the Comprehensive Plan. The vision and
goals were synthesized by the Steering Committee as a result of issues and policies brought
forward by the public through the planning process.
Issues, Policies, and Implementation Actions
This section of the Plan contains the issues (a restatement from the highlighted issue
section), policies and implementation actions to guide future growth and development. The
topics are: natural resources, land use and urban design, community infrastructure,
transportation, housing, historic preservation, economy, and storm and natural hazards.
For each of the main topics the implementation actions have been consolidated into
tables that provide the following detail: the priority given to the action item; the estimated
relative cost of implementation; the fiscal year in which it is proposed to be initiated; and the
responsible agency. These implementation action tables are to be used to evaluate progress in
implementing the Plan policies, and will serve as an annual status report to City Council and the
County Commissioners.
Land Classifications and Map
The land classification and map show the location of the land categories which are:
developed; urban transition; limited transition; community; rural; and conservation. These
categories are intended to guide and promote wise development, redevelopment, and natural
resource conservation for the Plan. The policies and implementation actions fit within the
architecture provided by the land classification.
Definitions
The appendix contains definitions to be used with the Plan elements containing issues,
policies, and implementation actions.
E

IV. Issue Highlights
Introduction
An important first step in the Comprehensive Plan process was to identify community
concerns. Issues were identified through an extensive public consultation, participation and
review process which included: a New Hanover County voter survey (Eastcoast Consumer
Research Group, October 1997); public forums; the Wilmington Chamber of Commerce's
Community Growth Planning initiative; and the public Comprehensive Plan Subcommittees, and
Steering Committee.
The issues, as expressed by the community through this collaborative process, have been
grouped into the following topics: natural resources; land use and urban design; community
infrastructure; transportation; housing; economy; historic preservation; and storm and natural
hazards. The following major issues were identified.
Natural Resource Issues
1. Clean Water. Continued declining water quality has led to strong community desire for
protection and enhancement of our surface and ground water quality and to bring all coastal
water up to the highest quality possible.
2. Open Space Preservation and Acquisition. Loss of open space and farmlands to development
has resulted in strong community desire to preserve remaining areas of public use; greenways,
bike paths, hiking trails, conservation areas.
3. Environmental Protection and Quality of Life. The special quality of our coastal environment
is perceived as an important ingredient in our overall quality of life including our potential for
continued economic growth. We must ensure the protection and enhancement of our natural
resources.
4. Growth Management. The current rate of growth is much too fast for the community's
comfort level and it is having a perceived negative impact on the quality of life. The
Comprehensive Plan must have implementable policies to encourage sustainable and orderly
growth.
5. Implementation of Plans. Identified as a weak area in previous plans; the Comprehensive Plan
should identify the time frame, resource costs, accountability, and feedback necessary to
ensure its implementation.
Land Use and Urban Design Issues
1. Allocation of sufficient land for all desirable land use types.
2. Flexible and innovative site plan criteria are needed to guide the development process
throughout the county.
3. Continue to promote Wilmington as a regional trade center.
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4. Minimize dependence on the automobile by changing land use patterns and providing
facilities for alternative methods of transportation.
5. Allow higher density where adequate infrastructure exists and where natural conditions will
not be adversely effected.
6. Land use plans and regulations effecting land use should be coordinated between the City and
County and should incorporate the conclusions of other planning efforts (i.e. Community
Growth, Downtown 2020, River Corridor Plan).
7. Define urban growth boundaries.
8. Identify elements that define quality of life and determine the impacts of the built
environment on those elements.
Transportation Issues
1. The full impact of new development and changes in land use on transportation systems, and
the cost of mitigating this impact, is not adequately addressed.
2. Efforts to improve flow of people and products are not sufficiently coordinated.
3. Alternative forms of transport are not given enough emphasis.
4. Strip development along thoroughfares.
5. The preservation of transportation corridors is inadequate.
6. The appearance of road arteries needs improvement.
7. The construction and maintenance of transportation facilities negatively impacts the
environment, particularly water quality.
8. Driveway access to arterial roads are not sufficiently controlled.
9. Traffic volume exceeds the capacity of street networks.
10. The negative affects of new roads on neighborhoods.
Community Infrastructure Issues
1. The uncoordinated, costly provision of community services and facilities is of concern.
2. The high cost of infrastructure investment places a burden on public and private financial
resources.
3. Storm water drainage problems caused by existing and future development raises concern.
4. There are inadequate sewer and water services in some unincorporated areas.
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5. The optimal location, use and maintenance of education facilities, some of which are
overcrowded and need improvements.
6. Insufficient provision of community open space, recreation and cultural facilities for present
and future needs.
7. Recognition of Downtown Wilmington as the regional cultural nucleus.
8. Maintenance of adequate police and fire services in unincorporated areas.
9. Increased waste management problem due to growth and development.
10. The proliferation of telecommunication towers.
Housing Issues
1. The City minimum housing program should be improved. The County should establish and
adopt a minimum housing code and enforcement program.
2. There is a documented need for affordable housing, particularly for low and moderate income
residents.
3. The City and County need to ensure that it is receiving the maximum amount of federal and
state financial opportunities for community and economic development.
4. There is a need to provide an increased amount of affordable rental housing.
5. There are an estimated 800 homeless persons County wide with the majority living in the
City.
6. Neighborhood residents need a mechanism to voice their concerns regarding growth, and
change, and the County and City needs an efficient way to provide information to residents.
7. There is a need for adequate housing for the special need population, elderly, and disabled in
the City and County.
8. With the growth of UNC-Wilmington and Cape Fear Community College, students will need
adequate on and off campus housing.
Economy Issues
1. There needs to be improved economic diversification, and continued effort to attract
employers that provide high paying jobs.
2. Continue efforts to attract and retain business to economically distressed areas.
3. To remain competitive into the next decade the State port will need to deepen its harbor,
improve inland highway and rail access, and upgrade the terminal.
12

4. The area could increase marine related employment opportunities with: marine technology;
aquaculture; the aquarium; and boat manufacturing and marinas.
5. The Wilmington International Airport needs to expand to improve its competitiveness while
working to ensure community compatibility.
6. There is a need to balance tourism with a diversified economy.
7. There is a need to increase workforce preparedness, especially for the marginally trained and
under educated.
Historic Preservation Issue
The City and County need to identify, protect and plan for the preservation of its historic and
cultural resources.
Storm and Natural Hazard Issues
1. Three. hurricanes and five major storms in the past few years have focused attention on the
need for examination of many existing ordinances and building codes.
2. Use of land susceptible to hurricane and flooding damage must be scrutinized to assure the
safety of visitors and citizens.
3. It is the responsibility of the governments of New Hanover County, the City of Wilmington
and the beach Communities to provide a plan of action to protect the lives and property of
their citizens and visitors.
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V. Planning Process
Community Participants to the Plan
Public involvement was assured throughout the creation of the Comprehensive Plan
with: public forums; a public opinion survey; inclusion of a citizen Community Growth Planning
initiative; Public Subcommittees; and a Steering Committee.
• A Public Opinion Survey.
• Six Public Forums.
• A citizen initiative, Community Growth Planning.
• Four Public Comprehensive Plan Subcommittee meetings.
• Comprehensive Plan Steering Committee with 21 oversight meetings.
• Public Forum on Draft Comprehensive Plan
Subject topics discussed included: natural resources; land use and urban design;
community infrastructure; transportation; housing; economy; historic preservation; and storm
and natural hazards.
Public Opinion Survey
The Public Opinion Survey was conducted in 1997 through a random telephone survey
of 410 registered voters in New Hanover County. Detailed findings of the survey indicate:
"The current rate of (County) growth is much too fast for voters to accept and is much
higher than previous study levels. A total of 72% said growth was too fast, versus 5 1 % in 1991
or 41% in 1986. The voter population has decided to accept more (economic activity in the
County) but it is limited to mostly "light high tech" industrial business. This suggests that most
voters like (economic) growth if it is the right growth. The voters definitely want developers to
pay for the infrastructure costs, roads, schools, ect., caused by their growth or developments. The
89% rating was even higher than the 83% or 84% ratings of the previous studies (1986 and
1991). However, developers would likely pass along any of these costs to their buyers, voters or
taxpayers or businesses."
"Half of the voters said that continued growth and development is just as important as
protecting the environment in the current study. This indicates that they are having difficulty in
choosing, because both issues are important. Most of the voters are willing to see City and
County dollars spent on solving their most important problem (growth). The 88% current study
level is much stronger than the previous study levels (1991 and 1986). There was no clear choice
on what (transportation) facility needs improvement. Responses were evenly distributed across
most choices, except for a slight preference for improved roads. This likely reflects their traffic
issue concerns."
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Public Forums
In the fall of 1997 six Public Forums were held across the County and included help
from Community Growth Planning volunteers. Public input was solicited with a growth and land
use survey and prioritized issues.
Including a Citizen Initiative - Community Growth Planning
In response to concerns over rapid growth in the planning area a citizen driven
Community Growth Planning initiative was supported by the Chamber of Commerce. This
initiative identified and prioritized growth related issues facing our community. Community
Growth Planning conducted a visioning process attended by more than 250 citizens, representing
over 90 civic groups during six public meetings. Initiative issues and vision ideas were
incorporated directly into the Comprehensive Plan. This citizen initiative and the Comprehensive
Plan have been mutually beneficial.
Public Subcommittees
The Public Subcommittees for the Comprehensive Plan consisted of over 70 non -
appointed volunteer members who attended four meetings over a three month period during the
Spring of 1998. The Subcommittees developed issue and policy statements, and implementation
actions. This process included issues raised by Community Growth Planning.
Plan Oversight - Steering Committee
The Comprehensive Plan Steering Committee, was appointed by elected officials to
representing the community in creation of the Comprehensive Plan. The Steering Committee
met 18 times in 1998, from February to October and provided oversight for the duration of the
plan development. The statements and actions developed by the Public Subcommittees were
forwarded to the Steering Committee for review and refinement for inclusion in the
Comprehensive Plan. The Steering Committee created a vision statement and goals summarizing
the statements and actions for the Plan. A public hearing was held in September 1998 to further
solicit information regarding the draft Comprehensive Plan. In October 1998 the County
Commissioners and City Council authorized the submittal of this draft Comprehensive Plan to
the State for Initial Review. State comments were addressed in three meetings form February to
June 1998. Public hearings, consideration and adoption of the Plan by the County
Commissioners and City Council is scheduled for the Fall of 1999.
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VI. Vision and Goals
VISION STATEMENT
Wilmington and New Hanover County are rich in history, natural resources and
tradition. These are the characteristics that have formed our way of life and have made the area
attractive to those who live and visit here. This way of life has adapted to changing times and to
new people of differing ethnic proportion, customs and background. The natural resources have
contributed to the area's economic prosperity and beauty.
Our vision is to continue to adapt to growth as we preserve the values that make our
community a great place to live in harmony with the earth and the sea and give our people
unique opportunity for making a living.
Thus, we combine the legacy of the past with the promise of the future.
VISION OBJECTIVES
Our Way of Life
Our overall quality of life will be enhanced through the preservation, renovation and
restoration of our neighborhoods.
We will have parks, greenways, and bike paths that provide recreational opportunities
for every citizen.
Our region will offer outstanding, affordable health care systems and facilities.
All these elements will continue to make this area a very desirable place to live, work
and raise a family.
Government
There will be cooperation among all government agencies.
We will defeat crime, drugs and violence through community wide commitment and
action, coordinating educational, preventive, enforcement and rehabilitative programs
and initiatives.
Infrastructure and Transportation
Our infrastructure systems will meet the needs of our economy and provide a high level
of service to a growing population in a fiscally responsible manner.
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Our highways will meet the appropriate levels of service and scheduled plans will be
ahead of anticipated growth patterns.
There will be an inter -modal transportation system serving our County, State and
Region.
Housing and Economics
Safe, sanitary and affordable housing will be available to every citizen.
Business development and diversity will embrace all economic, ethnic, social and
cultural segments of the community.
We will have grown our economic base and average wages/salaries by growing our high
tech, heritage tourism, movie industry and port industry.
We are recognized for our culturally diverse and highly inclusive business community.
The business and industrial sectors will first look within our community for human
resources development.
Employment and financial opportunities will be provided for all citizens.
Our historic and commercial districts will flourish and continue to be a hub for economic
and cultural activities.
Education
Our children and their education will be this community's highest priority beginning at
the pre-school level.
Our school system test results will be among the leaders in the state.
Vocational and technical training alternatives will begin at the middle school level.
Cape Fear Community College and UNC-Wilmington will continue to grow and offer
advanced vocational and post -secondary educational opportunities.
Environment
We envision that in the year 2020, Wilmington and New Hanover County will be an
environmentally clean area with a healthy economy.
Our natural resources, including our beaches, rivers, sounds, aquifers, natural vegetation
and tree canopy will be preserved and protected.
17

GOALS OF THE COMPREHENSIVE PLAN
The following goals and common themes for the Wilmington and New Hanover County
Comprehensive Plan are summarized from the policies and implementation actions.
CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT - PHYSICAL PLAN
Land Classification
The guiding architecture for the physical Plan is provided by the following mapped land
classifications. Land classes range from developed urban land to the less developed rural and
resource protected environment. The land classification system is supported and complemented
by zoning.
Land Classification - Guiding Architecture for the Physical Plan
Developed Limited Transition Rural Resource Protection
Urban Transition Community Conservation
The developed and urban transition classes comprise the urban service area. The purpose
of the developed class is to provide for continued intensive development and redevelopment of
existing urban areas. The urban transition class provides for future intensive urban development
on lands that have been or will be provided with necessary urban services. The developed and
urban transition classes allow residential densities greater than 2.5 units per acre.
Residential densities may not exceed 2.5 units per acre for the non -urban service area
composed of: limited transition; community; rural; conservation; and resource protection. The
limited transition class provided for development in areas that will have some services, but at
lower densities than those associated with urban transition. The community class provides for a
"crossroads" type of development to help meet housing, shopping, employment and public
service needs within the more rural areas of the County. The rural class provides for areas of low
intensity land uses, such as agriculture, forests, and mineral extraction areas. The conservation
class provides long-term management and protection of significant, limited or irreplaceable
natural resources. The resource protection class provides preservation and protection of
important natural, historic, scenic, wildlife, and recreation resources.
Conservation and Development - Physical Plan
The Plan's policies and implementation actions fit within the land classification. Together
they address the need to balance conservation and development, through physical planning, for
the City and County. The following are the key physical Plan elements and objectives.
Kev Elements for the Conservation and Development - Phvsical Plan
Natural Resource Protection
Conservation Corridors, Greenways, Parks, and Open Space
Residential Neighborhood Development
Linking Pedestrian Friendly Business and Residential Development
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Urban Design for Business and Residential Neighborhood Development
Historic Preservation
Community Infrastructure
Transportation
Storm and Natural Hazards
Natural Resource Protection
Our City and County is characterized by low lying land and tidal waters that meet the
Atlantic Ocean. The plan emphasizes protection of our marshlands which act as a natural
stormwater management system. Wetlands act as hurricane buffers, protect us from flooding, and
are important natural filters for plants and animals. Natural resource protection focus areas
include water quality, open space, wetlands, creeks rivers and flood plain areas, estuaries,
beaches, potable water supply, air quality, agriculture and forestry, and harvesting mineral and
fishery resources.
Conservation Corridors, Greenways, Parks and Open Space
The plan provides for conservation corridors and greenways which are linear open space
systems that link and incorporate conservation areas, key parks, open space areas and utility
corridors.
The Plan includes neighborhood, community and regional parks. These are intended to
provide a wide range of facilities to serve the diverse recreational and sporting needs of the
community. The parks and facilities serve both passive and active recreational needs of the
community. The proposed facilities range from playgrounds, picnic areas, basketball courts,
baseball diamonds and tennis courts to larger athletic fields and parks which provide for resource
oriented activities, such as boating, fishing, and hiking. Specialized parks include golf courses
and nature parks.
Proposed greenways would be located along natural and -or man-made features and
would serve as conservation areas or as recreation areas for walking, jogging, biking and
enjoying nature. The conservation component of greenways afford opportunities to protect and
connect key natural features and functions, preserve essential water resources, act as natural
filtration areas for runoff and pollutants, and to provide corridors for wildlife migration.
Greenways are typically located along streams, flood plains and wetlands, and
correspond to natural vegetated buffers adjacent to wetlands and perennial stream channels.
Greenways may be either publicly or privately owned. Utility corridors such as roads, canals,
reservoir shorelines and water, sewer, and power line easements can also be good locations for
greenways. Greenways range in improvements from slightly cleared natural pathways to fully
paved bike and pedestrian paths, and may or may not be accessible to the public.
Residential Neighborhood Development
The Plan provides guidelines for creating regulations and incentives that will encourage
the development of residential neighborhoods with environmentally sensitive design and an
integrated open space system. The Plan focuses on improving modern residential development
designs such as planned unit developments. The Plan accommodates Traditional Neighborhood
19

Development with smaller lot neighborhoods, narrower tree lined streets, and sidewalks on both
sides of the street. This design emphasizes a pedestrian orientation and scale. Diverse housing
types and lot sizes are mixed and houses are located close to the fronting street. There may also
be compatible nonresidential uses mixed in among the residential uses in the neighborhood.
Public spaces, such as formal neighborhood parks, village greens or squares are primary features
included in the design. These serve as focal points for community interaction to compensate for
the smaller lot sizes. Traditional neighborhood designs include alleys for access to parking and
for essential public services. Most traditional neighborhoods use on -street parking , which also
serves to reduce traffic speed, buffer sidewalk pedestrians from traffic, and supply daily
overflow or guest parking.
Linking Pedestrian Friendly Business and Residential Development
The Plan envisions concentrating business and residential development in nodes, while
retaining open space. This vision provides an alternative to unattractive, inefficient, and land
wasteful strip development, with isolated cut off residential neighborhoods. This vision
decreases dependence on the automobile. The business nodes would include highly accessible,
pedestrian friendly commercial centers, surrounded by mixed density residential neighborhoods.
Moving outwards from these centers, the residential densities would decrease.
The Plan provides for innovation and flexibility in land use. Proposed business and
residential nodes are identified, but the precise internal arrangement of the commercial, office,
institutional and higher density residential uses that make up the activity center is not specified.
Instead the Plan establishes for creating development regulations along with incentives that will
provide for innovation and flexibility in land use development. Changes to the Unified
Development Ordinance regulations and procedures will provide the flexibility for innovation to
establish and promote a hierarchy of neighborhood, community and regional activity centers.
Urban Design for Business and Residential Neighborhood Development
A recurring theme from the community involvement and consultation process was a
desire for improved urban design. These included thoroughfare landscaping and signage,
pedestrian access, dedicated bicycle routes, and pedestrian friendly shopping centers and parking
lots.
The Plan includes general design guidelines to be expanded in the Unified Development
Ordinance. The aim is to maintain and enhance the City and County's visual appeal and its
image as an attractive place in which to live, work and recreate. The Plan design guidelines
address the aesthetic qualities of residential areas, activity and employment centers. The focus of
the Plan design guidelines is on the preservation and creation of a connected open space system
with recreation facilities, and the preservation of environmentally significant features and
functions. The design guidelines also address preventing strip commercial development, and the
establishment of an integrated transportation network. The Plan guidelines serve as a basis for
developing specific regulations, standards and requirements to manage growth and development.
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Historic Preservation
Closely related to urban design for business and Traditional Neighborhood Development
is the unique treasure of existing historic residences and business properties, primarily located in
downtown Wilmington. The public involvement process of the Plan identified the need to
nurture and maintain this rich cultural heritage through historic preservation. To date a revised
set of historic preservation guidelines has been writen for homeowners, builders and contractors.
The Plan recognizes the established Historic Districts which protect and preserve areas with
architectural significance, heritage, historic importance, and their overall aesthetic qualities.
Community Infrastructure
The Comprehensive Plan serves as an official statement of where growth and
development will be given preference in the future. Not only does it serve to guide investment
decisions by the private sector and citizens; the plan provides a powerful tool to direct new
community infrastructure and investment.
The developed and urban transition land classes comprise the urban service area of the
Wilmington and the unincorporated County (see map in Land Classification section of Plan).
Beyond the urban service area are the land classes of the non -urban service area. Guiding growth
in the urban service area will deter land development sprawl and provide for more efficient
infrastructure levels of service.
Policy direction on how to pay for the needed community infrastructure includes
exploration of alternative forms of financing included impact fees, bonds, user fees, and tax
increases for the improvements needed to have a high quality level of service. These
infrastructure projects will prevent a decline in the level of service provided to County and City
residents. Paying for community infrastructure will be fairly shared by new development and
existing residents.
Transportation
The Greater Wilmington Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO) is responsible for
developing and implementing the Transportation Plan for most of the Plan study area. The MPO
includes the City of Wilmington, New Hanover and Brunswick Counties, Belville, Leland,
Navassa, and Wrightsville Beach.
Future housing and employment data forms the basis for the development and testing of
alternate transportation plans. These plans were developed taking into account economic
feasibility, public desires, and environmental impacts. For these plans to be successfully
implemented, the future rights -of -way must be procured or protected.
The current draft Greater Wilmington Urban Area Transportation Plan contains
recommended improvements to the transportation system and these recommendations are
reaffirmed by the policies and actions contained in the Comprehensive Plan. Recommendations
focus on the following.
• The provision of major and minor new thoroughfares.
• Widening of existing streets where appropriate.
21

• The feasibility of multi -modal transit alternatives.
• Park and ride lots, express bus service, and carpool and vanpool services.
• Increased rubber tired trolley service.
• Bicycle and pedestrian pathways.
• Congestion management.
Storms and Natural Hazards
Three hurricanes passing over our County and City between 1996 and 1998 fully
demonstrate the need for proactive storm and natural hazard policies with implementation
actions in the Plan. The policies and implementation actions address mitigation, evacuation, and
recovery in the event of a hurricane or disaster. These policies and actions focus on measures to
safeguard increased future populations from the risk of natural disaster. A Recovery Task Force
may be appointed with the responsibility for directing reconstruction after a damaging storm. If
needed the City and County may retain on a seasonal basis a facilitator or consultant to assist
with mitigation, evacuation, recovery efforts. Actions address immediate removal and debris
clean up and restoration of services following a major storm event.
HOUSING AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT - SOCIAL NEEDS
Housing and Related Challenges
The following are key housing related challenges to come out of the Plan public
consultation process.
The Plan supports the effort for the City to enhance it's minimum housing program, and
for the County to establish a minimum housing program with appropriate enforcement.
The Plan contains policy and action to increase affordable housing for low and moderate
income persons. Methods for increasing affordable housing and ownership for low and moderate
income residents include: expanding existing programs; establishing a mortgage revenue bond
program; and establishing a land trust program for affordable housing land acquisition.
Federal and State funding for housing and economic development programs would be
maximized through a consolidation of the County and City, Housing and Urban Development,
Community Development Block Grant program. It is recommended that consolidation of the
City and County programs should be considered.
The amount of rental affordable housing needs to be increased and the Plan calls for an
expanded City rental rehabilitation loan program and the establishment of a similar County
program.
The City and County homeless population is a challenge to be addressed. The Plan calls
for expanded programs for homeless shelters with acceptable quality accommodations, and with
an emphasis on housing for the mentally disabled.
There are concerns for better public outreach on growth and development. These
concerns include the need for better communication in both the City and County between
22

government staff, elected officials, and citizens neighborhood associations. The Plan calls for
creating neighborhood guidelines to remedy this challenge.
The elderly population in the City and County will increase because of immigrating
retirees and aging "baby boomers" in the next decade. The Plan calls for establishing a housing
program to deal with the challenge of the projected increase in persons with special needs and
elderly persons.
To insure that there will be adequate student housing for the University of North
Carolina at Wilmington and Cape Fear Community College, the Plan calls for an on and off
campus student housing program coordinated with the University, the College, and the City and
County.
Economy
Key economic concepts to come out of the Plan public consultation process include the
following.
Data from the economic technical report show that 57% of the jobs in the County are
relatively low paying, consisting of retail trade, service, and construction. Manufacturing jobs
are the highest paying but they have been steadily declining and now constitute only 11% of the
work force. Policy and implementation action to address this challenge is to develop a
coordinated economic development strategy to attract high paying employers, while creating a
more diversified economy.
Some areas are economically distressed and both the City and County are working with
non-profit and for profits organizations to attract and retain business in these areas. A priority is
to expand economic opportunities for low and moderate income residents so that poverty is
reduced, and employment increased. As more businesses are located in economically distressed
areas commercial districts will improve and.related jobs will increase for local residents.
From 1990 to 1996 the Wilmington State Port Authority added to the state economy by
ripple effect: 46,000 new jobs, $1.3 billion in income; $8.3 billion in new sales; $185 million in
new taxes. This major player in our local economy will need to remain competitive into the next
decade by deepening its harbor, improving inland highway and rail access, and upgrading the
terminal. The Plan supports the needed Port upgrades with policy and implementation actions.
An important part our coastal County and port City heritage is the water dependent
marine economy. The Plan supports: local aquaculture research and marine technology; the
expansion efforts of the North Carolina Aquarium at Fort Fisher; and expanded boat
manufacturing and boating services such as marinas.
The Plan encourages airport economic growth and development that will be compatible
with surrounding land uses.
The City and County are a favorite destination for tourists. New Hanover County's per
capita retail sales ranked fourth highest in the state in 1995. The Plan encourages a diversified
23

economy including heritage and historic preservation tourism, boating tourism, and eco-tourism
activity.
A skilled and educated workforce is essential for a healthy economy. The Plan addresses
this challenge by supporting the school and work programs of Cape Fear Community College
and the New Hanover County Public Schools. Vocational education is a particular emphasis to
the Plan. An action item in the Plan is to expand the job skills program for the post high school
aged under -prepared. The Plan supports a study needed to prepare guidelines to address
challenge of public school drop outs and high school students working excessively during the
school year.
24

VII. Natural Resources
(Environment)
ISSUES............................................................................................................................
The following issues have been identified by Citizens through the Community Growth Planning Initiative
and throughout the Comprehensive Plan public participation process, which has included public forums, a telephone
public opinion survey, Subcommittees, and the Steering Committee Task Groups.
1. Clean Water - continued declining water quality has led to strong community desire for protection
and enhancement of our surface and groundwater quality and to bring all coastal waters up to the
highest quality possible.
2. Open Space Preservation & Acquisition - loss of open space and farmlands to development has
resulted in strong community desire to preserve remaining areas for public use; parks, greenways,
bike paths, hiking trails, conservation areas; Save Airlie Gardens!
3. Environmental Protection/Quality of Life - the special quality of our coastal environment is
perceived as an important ingredient in our overall quality of life including our potential for
continued economic growth. We must ensure the protection and enhancement of our natural
resources as stewards for future generations.
4. Growth Management- the current rate of growth is much too fast for the community's comfort level
and it is having a perceived negative impact on the quality of life. The Comprehensive Plan must
have implementable policies to encourage sustainable and orderly growth.
5. Implementation of Plans - identified as a weak area in previous plans; the Comprehensive Plan
should identify the time frame, resource/costs, accountability, and feedback necessary to ensure its
implementation.
24

Natural Resources
POLICIES........................................................................................................................................
A. RESOURCE PROTECTION
We must preserve, protect and enhance the area's natural resources, because the quality of our environment
is an important ingredient in our overall quality of life, including our potential for continued economic
growth.
The protection of our resources shall be pursued in a regional context with area -wide planning, through a
political process that favors long-term goals over short-term interests and provides accountability for the
implementation of the goals and policies stated herein.
1. WATER QUALITY The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall:
1.1 Prevent further deterioration of estuarine water quality and loss of public trust uses in the
creeks and sounds and bring all coastal waters quality up to its use designation as
determined by the Division(s) of Water Quality, Marine Fisheries, Health, and E.P.A.
1.2 Ensure the protection of water quality throughout the Cape Fear River Basin within New
Hanover County and the management & maintenance of drainage within our coastal
watersheds through participation in the development of regional water quality / stormwater
management programs.
1.3 Ensure the protection, preservation and wise use of our natural resources by careful
review and consideration of the anticipated impacts of development through the creation and
implementation of an Environmental Review Program.
1.4 It is the intent of this plan to further provide for the protection and improvement of our water
quality through our Unified Development Ordinance (UDO). The UDO should specify
standards for water quality, buffers, setbacks, density, impervious surface, and overlay
corridors; it should consider estuarine, river and other feeder creeks water quality; and it
should build upon existing information and ordinances.
2. OPEN SPACE The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall:
2.1 Ensure the preservation of adequate open space for its continued enjoyment and
contribution to our community today and for generations to come, to protect our natural
environment and wildlife habitats and to provide educational & recreational opportunities.
2.2 Identify and protect wildlife corridors as a part of the greenway system and require their
protection or mitigation with all new development.
2.3 Preserve Airlie Gardens as a part of the greenway system to provide public open space,
natural environment and water quality protection, coastal landscape, educational
opportunities, and to ensure its continued enjoyment and contribution to our community.
2.4 Ensure the protection of our community's significant trees and the provision of adequate
25

landscaping to address urban design and resource protection issues through the update
of city and county development ordinances & processes and establishment of a joint
Tree Advisory Commission. Encourage and support the replacement of trees lost to natural
disaster and the use of native vegetation in landscaping.
2.5 Provide for the protection, acquisition and development of public shorefront and boat access
areas.
3. NATURAL RESOURCE CONSTRAINTS The City of Wilmington and New Hanover
County shall:
3.1 Preserve and restore shell fishing to all SA waters and bring all coastal waters designated
or formerly designated SA up to their use designation.
3.2 Provide for the continued protection of the Cape Fear River from the cumulative impacts
of development by ensuring that Industrial permitting does not exceed the river's carrying
capacity and land disturbing activities are carefully reviewed and considered for their
potential sediment/turbidity and nutrient impacts.
3.3 Minimize dense development activities in ocean erodible areas, high hazard flood areas,
inlet hazard areas, and coastal & federally regulated wetlands to protect the public safety,
reduce the risk of property damage, and provide for the long-term protection and
management of these environmentally significant resources due to their natural role in the
integrity of the coastal region.
3.4 Ensure the protection of coastal and federally regulated wetlands that have important
functional significance through early identification in the development process. Review of
development proposals should seek to achieve the hierarchical goals of avoidance,
minimization, and/or compensation.
3.5 Ensure the protection of our undeveloped barrier and estuarine system islands and support
research and passive recreation as their primary uses. Undeveloped barrier and estuarine
system islands should not be developed and should be identified as public acquisition
areas.
3.6 Carefully control development activities within the 100-year floodplain to minimize
density and impervious surfaces and require low intensity uses such as open space and
recreation, to protect the public safety, reduce the risk of property damage, and provide for
the long-term protection and management of these environmentally significant resources.
• Limited shared industrial access corridors and exceptionally designed residential
development projects may be allowed within the floodplain only where it can be
demonstrated that the project cannot be located out of the floodplain and where
adverse impacts to the estuarine system can be shown to be negligible.
• All projects shall comply with hierarchical review standards of avoidance,
minimization, and compensation for unavoidable impacts.
3.7 Require that the cumulative and secondary impacts of land use and development, and the
limited carrying capacity of our coastal ecosystems be considered in all land use decisions
and in the development or revision of local plans, capital facilities, services, and ordinances.
26

3.8 Allow channel maintenance projects only where the public trust interest is preserved or
enhanced; significant economic or recreational benefits will occur for planning area
residents; and no significant adverse impacts will occur on shoreline dynamics. Support State
and Federal channel and inlet maintenance projects, including the continued use and
development of the Wilmington Harbor and the State Ports, maintenance of the Atlantic
Intracoastal Waterway, and beach renourishment projects.
3.9 Allow estuarine shoreline erosion control only where the public trust interest is not adversely
impacted and the public shoreline will be the primary beneficiary.The shoreline stabilization
method chosen shall, to the maximum extent feasible, maintain water quality and avoid or
minimize adverse effects on nearshore habitat or natural resources.
3.10 Carefully control development activities within the estuarine watersheds to prevent the
degradation of water quality in the creeks and sounds, to protect the public health, and to
ensure the protection of these vital natural resources by reducing nutrient, pesticide,
sediment and otherharmful loadings through density controls, setbacks, buffers, impervious
surface limits, and other means. The following standards shall apply:
• Limit density to 2.5 units/acre or less in Resource Protection & Conservation.
• Limit impervious surface coverage.
• Increase existing setbacks and establish a natural vegetative buffer to effectively
filter runoff prior to entering surface waters.
3.11 To preserve, protect, and where possible restore water quality and vital estuarine resources,
a naturally vegetated buffer with an average width of 35 linear feet shall be established or
maintained within established setback areas defined as Conservation Overlay Districts
(COD'S). The determination and management of buffers must balance the above stated
goals with the property owner's right to develop and use the property. Guidelines for
standards to maintain, alter and properly manage vegetation within the buffer areas should
be established within the Unified Development Ordinance (UDO) process and should be
included in the COD guidelines.
3.12 Limit density in hydric soils and Areas of Environmental Concern (AEC's)wand encourage
Planned Residential Development and Planned Unit Development to allow greater design
flexibility to save trees and natural buffers.
3.13 Clearcutting or mowing of coastal wetland vegetation within any coastal wetland AEC
shall not be allowed.
4. AREAS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN The City of Wilmington and New Hanover
County shall:
4.1 Prohibit the use of estuarine waters, estuarine shorelines and public trust areas for
development activity which would result in significant adverse impact to the natural
function of these areas.
4.2 Carefully control development activities within AEC's to prevent the degradation of water
quality and to ensure the protection of these vital natural resources by reducing nutrient,
pesticide, sediment and other harmful loadings through the use of density control, setbacks,
buffers, impervious surface limits, and other means. The following standards shall apply:
• Limit density to 2.5 units/acre or less in Resource Protection and Conservation.
27

Limit impervious surface coverage.
Increase existing setbacks and establish a natural vegetative buffer to effectively
filter runoff prior to entering surface waters.
4.3 Support the preservation, protection, and acquisition of the Masonboro Island Estuarine
Research Reserve
4.4 Discourage the development of undeveloped barrier and estuarine system islands.
4.5 Continue the phased development and extension of the County sewer system within the
urban services area as a means of eliminating water pollution from malfunctioning or
inadequate septic systems and package treatment plants. In Conservation and Resource
Protection areas an environmental review shall be required prior to sewer system
development or extension and no additional density shall be allowed in these areas. Planned
Residential Development, Planned Unit Development and other methods of cluster
development shall be encouraged to allow greater design flexibility.
4.6 Allow only tertiary sewage treatment plants of the highest quality, whose standards of
operation provide the greatest measure of water quality protection, to discharge into public
surface waters; and then only if it is not feasible to connect to the public sewer system, or
as an alternative, on or off -site land application located away from surface waters.
4.7 Seek to provide additional boat access facilities, recognizing that adequate, properly
sited facilities are essential to the preservation of both the environment and economy.
4.8 Allow the development of marinas, dry stack storage, and moorings as a means of providing
public access to the extent that their development shall not adversely effect estuarine
resources or public trust waters.
• Marinas shall not be allowed in Primary Nursery Areas(PNA), Outstanding
Resource Waters(ORW), or open Shellfishing Waters(SA).
• Moorings and mooring fields shall not be allowed where they may have an
adverse effect on navigation channels.
• Pumpout facilities shall be required for existing marinas which have boats
containing enclosed heads.
4.9 Allow uses of estuarine and public trust waters that provide benefits to the public and which
satisfy riparian access needs of private property owners. In tidal waters, docks shall be
limited to the minimum necessary to provide riparian access to waterfront property owners
4.10 Not allow new dredging activities in Primary Nursery Areas (PNA), Outstanding Resource
Waters (ORW), or Shellfishing Waters (SA) , except for the purpose of scientific research,
designed for the purpose of protecting and enhancing water quality, and where supported
by sound scientific and technical knowledge. Limited exceptions may be allowed for the
urban waterfront and Wilmington's ports, consistent with the goals and objectives of the
Cape Fear River Corridor Plan (1997) and the Downtown 2020 Plan (1998).
4.11 Clearcutting or mowing of coastal wetland vegetation within any coastal wetland AEC shall
not be allowed.
28

4.12 Prohibit floating home development in order to protect our public trust and estuarine waters
and to avoid impacts on hurricane mitigation efforts.
4.13 Pursue a policy of "retreat" along our estuarine shorelines in order to accommodate future
sea level rise and wetland migration.
4.14 Allow shoreline erosion control and stabilization above our marsh wetlands only where
the public trust interest is not impacted and the public shoreline will be the primary
beneficiary. The shoreline stabilization method chosen shall, to the maximum extent
feasible, maintain water quality and avoid or minimize adverse effects on nearshore habitat
or natural resources.
5. POTABLE WATER SUPPLY The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall:
5.1 Ensure that all land use and development decisions protect our groundwater aquifers.
5.2 Not allow the development of mining operations if, based upon the best available information
and scientific data, adverse impacts to the ground water aquifer will most probably occur.
5.3 Conserve and protect the best sources of potable surface and groundwater.
5.4 Preserve the Castle Hayne and Pee Dee aquifers in their present unpolluted state as the
primary groundwater resources for the County.
6. _ OTHER FRAGILE OR HAZARDOUS AREAS The City of Wilmington and New Hanover,
County shall:
6.1 Continue to support plans for the safe transportation of hazardous materials, for the
prevention and clean-up of spills of toxic materials, and the evacuation of area residents in
response to natural or man-made hazardous events.
6.2 Carefully review the siting of all industries, including energy facilities and high voltage
utilities, to ensure the protection of area residents and natural resources. Development of all
off -shore mineral, oil, and gas resources shall be discouraged.
6.3. Ensure that industrial permitting on the Cape Fear River does not exceed the rivers carving
capacity and that land disturbing activities are carefully reviewed and considered for their
potential cumulative impacts.
6.4. Ensure the continued protection of the Masonboro Island Estuarine Research Reserve and
support the preservation and acquisition efforts.
7. AIR QUALITY The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall:
7.1 Ensure the protection and enhancement of air quality in our community through continued
commitment and actions to meet or exceed the Cape Fear Region's National Air Quality
Standards.
29

B. RESOURCE PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
We must seek to ensure the continued sustainable development of the area's natural resources
through responsible management which avoids short sighted or premature commitments and
fulfills our community's needs without permanent impairment to the resource base.
We will support efforts to wisely manage the natural resources of the area and the region through
cooperation with other governmental entities and public and private agencies.
1. AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY RESOURCES The City of Wilmington and New
Hanover County shall:
1.1 Discourage the premature conversion of the planning area's remaining farmlands and
commercial woodlands into more intensive uses.
2. MINERAL RESOURCES The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall:
2.1 Not allow the development of mining operations if, based upon the best available
information and scientific data, adverse impacts to the ground water aquifer or other
significant environmental resources will most probably occur.
3. FISHERIES RESOURCES The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall:
3.1 Support the continued productivity of commercial and recreational fisheries through the
protection of the unique coastal ecosystems, including primary nursery areas, shellfish
waters and coastal marshes upon which they depend, and the Masonboro Island Estuarine
Research Reserve.
3.2 Pursue the protection, preservation, and restoration of shellfishing in all SA waters.
4. OFF -ROAD VEHICLES The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall:
4.1 Ensure the continued protection of ecologically sensitive ocean and estuarine shoreline areas
through monitoring and control of off -road vehicle use, including signage programs,
rewards, increased fines, and other means.
30

Policy #'s
.:.........
Implementation Actions
DetatI for Actions
�'riority
Resources
Fiscal;
ltespons b�lhy
Status
.: ..................
Requued
Xear(sj
All
Annually review and update the
1) Develop a review and update process for the implementation
One (1)
$
All
Planning
implementation action schedule
action schedule
A.
RESOURCE PROTECTION
A.1.
Water Quality
AL I
Develop a regional water quality/
1) Develop a joint city/county drainage and water quality program
One (1)
$$$$$
1999 -
Planning /
stormwater management program
to include ocean, river and estuarine water quality monitoring
2000 -
Engineering
2001 -
2) Develop drainage systems and design standards that reflect the
2002
natural carrying capacity of the watershed (ie-soils, slope,
permeability, & other natural features)
3) Develop specific water quality standards and development
performance standards for each watershed, to include max.
impervious surface, buffers, permeable paving, reduced parking
surfaces, and others.
4) Develop standards to ensure the retention, acquisition and
management of natural vegetative buffers to preserve, maintain
and protect water quality.
5) Update/develop subdivision design standards to protect and
improve water quality in sensitive areas.
6) Seek legislation to require that NCDOT modify its standards to
ensure the protection and enhancement of water quality
7) Develop educational programs and other strategies to deal with
point and non -point source impacts on water quality, such as pet
waste and other sources.
8) Establish a funding mechanism through a county -wide
assessment and/or basin specific utility district fee, and pursue all
available grants.
9) Continue to support the Lower Cape Fear River Program & the
UNCW Tidal Creeks Program.
Also see A.1.3 >
Also see A.1.3 >
A.1.2
See A.1.1 >
See A.1.1 >
31

:....:....Policy..
..........
.....
s
io.. ft...'.A............c........t...i......d..........n............... .
c..n...t...a.
..... I I ........
o:j ..... ....... .............
.......................................... s
............ ails'f6r:A0..i.o..
I'll., .... ........
............... ..............
.
P....fl..
I. ... I .....
.......
.....
....................
X
....... .o..
... i.
..............................
.Y........................... ........
.............................U....................... .............. .
..
..
.......l......�.....p.....l:.
...6....m... ..t. .I ........................ ...
.. ........................ .. .
. ...................
...R...' .­
uirc.
........6.s.....
..m......i....b
............. . .i .
.................. ..
......... .
X......
..................-..:..X..u..:..s
...—................
... .. ... ...
A.1.3
Develop an environmental review
1) Develop an environmental review process and ordinance, to be
One (1)
$$
1999
Planning
program
required for all major development projects, or any development
in conservation, resource protection, coastal 404 wetlands or other
sensitive areas; to include:
a) guidelines for the evaluation of cumulative impacts on the
community.
b) guidelines for review of impacts in accordance with goals of
avoidance, minimization, compensation and/or mitigation.
c) identification and protection of historical, archaeological, and
other conservation resources
d) preservation of significant /specie trees
e) guidelines for mitigation of impacts
A.1.4
Update city and county
1) Revise and update the Unified Development Ordinance
One (1)
1999
Planning
development processes and
ordinances
2) Include new standards to address identified resource protection
issues, urban design issues, tree preservation / landscaping issues
and others.
3) Develop specific performance standards for setbacks, natural
vegetated buffers, and impervious surface linits for each
watershed.
4) Revise and update development/permit review process
Also seeA.1.1 &A.1.3 >
Also see A. 1. 1 & A. 1.3 >
A.2
Open Space
A2.1
Develop a comprehensive open
I)Develop and implement ajoint city -county masterplan for open
Two (2)
1999-
Planning/ Parks
space, greenways and trails system
space, greenways, parks, and trails.
2003
2)Develop a funding program to ensure adequate resources are
allocated. Funding strategies for consideration, to include fees,
bonds, grants, and others.
3)Develop public access/boat access area plans
4)ldentify areas on Future Land Use and Land Classification
Maps
Also see A.1.3 >
Also see A. 1.3 >
A.2.2
See A. 1.3 & A.2.1 >
See A. 1.3 & A.2.1 >
A.2.3
Preserve Airlie Gardens
Pursue acquisition /preservation strategies, to include program
One (1)
1998-
Planning/ Parks
Completed
funding through grants, bonds, and others.
1999
Also see A.2.1 >
Also see A.2.1 >
32

A.2.4-2.5
See A.1.4 & A.2.1 >
See A.1.4 & A.2.1 >
A.3
Natural Resource Constraints
A.3.1
See A.1.1 >
See A.1.1 >
A.3.2
Support the protection of the Cape
1) Support the Lower Cape Fear River Program, Cape Fear River
One (1)
$
1999-
Planning
Fear River from the cumulative
Assembly, Cape Fear Resource, Conservation & Development
2002
impacts of development
Council, and the Cape Fear River Basin Modeling Program (NC
Div. of Water Quality).
2) Support the development of best management practices and
pursue their implementation for upstream non -point sources of
pollution, including agricultural (hog, poultry, etc) and forestry
operations.
3) Support a continued moratorium on new or expanded industrial
hog fanning operations pending basinwide environmental impact
assessment.
Also see A.1.3 >
Also see A.1.3 >
A.3.3-3.7
See A.1.3 & A.1.4 >
See A.1.3 & A.1.4 >
A.3.8
See A.1.3 >
See A.1.3 >
A.3.9
See A.1.1 & A.1.3 >
See A.1.1 & A.1.3 >
A3.10-3.13
See A.1.1, A.1.3 & A.1.4 >
See A.1.1, A.1.3 & A.1.4 >
A.4
Areas of Environmental Concern
A.4.1
See A.1.1 & A.1.3 >
See A.1.1 & A.1.3 >
A.4.2
See A.1.1 >
See A.1.1 >
A.4.3
Support the protection and
1) Pursue island acquisition and preservation strategies
One (1)
$$
1999-
Planning
preservation of Masonboro Island
2002
Estuarine Research Reserve
2) Develop guidelines for the environmental review process to
ensure no significant adverse effects from mainland development
activities
3) Support the scientific research activities of the Reserve
AAA
See A.1.3, A.1.4 & A.4.3 >
See A.1.3, A.1.4 & A.4.3 >
A.4.5-4.6
See A.1.3 >
See A.1.3 >
A.4.7
See A.2.1 >
See A.2.1 >
33

A.4.8
See A.1.3 & A.2.1 >
See A.1.3 & A.2.1 >
A.4.9-4.10
See A.1.3 >
See A.1.3 >
A4.11-4.12
See A.1.4 >
See A.1.4 >
A.4.13
See A.1.3 & A.1.4 >
See A.1.3 & A.1.4 >
A.4.14
See A.1.3 >
See A.1.3 >
A.5
Potable Water Supply
A.5.1-5.5
See A.1.3 & A.1.4 >
See A.1.3 & A.1.4 >
A.6
Other Fragile or Hazardous Areas
A.6.1-6.3
See A.1.3 >
See A.1.3 >
A.6.4
See A.1.3 & A.4.3 >
See A.1.3 & A.4.3 >
A.7
Air Quality
A.7.1
See A.1.3 >
See A.1.3 >
B.
RESOURCE PRODUCTION &
MANAGEMENT
B.1
Agricultural & Forestry
Resources
B.1.1
See A.1.3 >
See A.1.3 >
B.2
Mineral Resources
B.2.1
See A.1.1 >
See A.1.1 >
B.3
Fisheries Resources
B.3.1-3.2
See A.1.1 & A.1.3 >
See A.1.1 & A.1.3 >
B.4
Off -Road Vehicles
B.4.1
See A.1.3 >
See A.1.3 >
34

VIII. Land Use and Urban Design
ISSUES.........................................................................................................
1. Allocation of sufficient land for all desirable land use types.
2. Flexible and Innovative site plan criteria are needed to guide the development process throughout the
County.
3. Continue to promote Wilmington as a regional trade center.
4. Minimize dependence on the automobile by changing land use patterns and providing facilities for
alternative methods of transportation.
5. Allow higher density where adequate infrastructure exists and where natural conditions will not be
adversely effected.
6. Land use plans and regulations effecting land use should be coordinated between the city and county
and should incorporate the conclusions of other planning efforts (ie. Community Growth, Downtown
2020, River Corridor Plan).
7. Define urban service district.
8. Identify elements that define quality of life and determine the impacts of the built environment on
those elements.
35

Land Use and Urban Design
POLICIES...................................................................................... .
1. Location/Demand
1.1 The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall strive to enhance the quality of the built
environment while preserving and protecting the area's natural environment.
1.2 The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County will designate sufficient land area and
suitable locations for the various land use types.
2. Open Space, Cultural and Recreation
2.1 The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County will strive to acquire, protect and beautify
historic and cultural sites, corridors along key roadways and significant open spaces.
3. Industrial
3.1 New Hanover County and the City of Wilmington will delineate areas for industrial usage so that
these sites maximize the efficient use of man made resources while not harming the fragile
ecosystem or causing undue impacts upon residents.
4. Commercial
4.1 New Hanover County and the City of Wilmington will assure that land is available for
commercial uses within close proximity to the markets they serve while not diminishing the
quality of residential and mixed use neighborhoods.
5. Mixed Use
5.1 The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County will promote mixed use development in
undeveloped areas in order to maximize benefits from available infrastructure, preserve valuable
natural resources including open space and reduce dependency on the automobile.
6. Residential Neighborhoods
6.1 The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall strive to protect the character of the
area's existing residential neighborhoods.
7. Design/Regulatory
7.1 The City of Wilmington and New Hanover County shall encourage innovative development
strategies while providing flexible design guidelines that enhance the aesthetic impact of the
built environment.
7.2 New Hanover County and the City of Wilmington shall adopt specific performance criteria to
encourage the conservation of natural resources and enhance economic desirability by promoting
accessibility of goods and services, providing alternatives to automobile transportation and
adopting specific performance criteria for new development.
36 .

S. Infrastructure
8.1 New Hanover County and the City of Wilmington shall promote development within an
established urban service area defined by the existence of essential urban services and the
planned provision of those services.
37

LAND USE AND URBAN DESIGN
Policy#
Implementation Actions
Details for'Actions
Priority
Resources
Fiscal ----''
Responsibility
Status
Required'Year(s)__
1
LOCATION/DEMAND
1.2
Use projected needs and available
Compare projections with future land use
N/A
$
September
Planning
services identified in the technical
map.
1998
studies as the basis for land use
allocations.
1.2
Locate land use types based on the
Future Land Use Map
N/A
$
September
Steering
following guiding policies and
1998
Committee
implementation items;
2
OPEN SPACE, CULTURAL AND
RECREATIONAL
2.1
Establish protective corridors along key
Reflect on Future Land Use Map (Sept.
1
$
Spring,
Steering
roadways, historic and cultural sites
'98), incorporate into revisions to UDO;
1999
Com/Planning
and other areas that are visually
Brd./ Planning
significant.
Com./ Planning
2.1
Pursue railroad and other rights -of -way
Monitor for abandonment.
2
$
Planning
On -Going
as potential open space, trailway and
recreation areas.
2.1
Identify environmentally sensitive land
Incorporate into Parks Master Plan and
2
$$$
1999-
Parks & Rec./
as potential open space and recreation
Capital Improvement Programs.
2000
Admin./
areas and key sites for parks.
Planning
3
INDUSTRIAL
3.1
Locate heavy industrial uses in
Reflect on Future Land Use Map (Sept.,
1
$
Spring,
Steering Com.
locations w/adequate land area to
1998), incorporate into revisions to UDO.
1999
/Planning
accommodate expansive sites required
Commission/
for such uses; that are environmentally
Planning
suitable; and, where necessary
infrastructure (utilities, transportation
facilities) is available or included in
capital improvement plans.
3.1
Allow light industrial (clean) uses in
Reflect on Future Land Use Map (Sept.,
1
$
Spring,
Steering Com.
mixed use areas with clear requirements
1998), incorporate into revisions to UDO.
1999
/Planning
for location on no less than collector
Commission/
streets, availability of utilities, and
Planning
appropriate performance controls to
address odor, noise, lighting and other
impacts on surrounding uses.
3.1
Provide a wide choice of sites with
Develop inventory of sites.
2
$
1999-
Planning/WID/
good access to labor markets, suppliers
2000
Chamber/
& buyers through consultation w/
SPA/UNCW
Wilm. Indus. Devel., the State Port and
others in the field of industrial
promotion.
38

f
LAND USE AND URBAN DESIGN
Policy#
Implementation Actions
Details for A' ions'1 ti `
Prtori,ty
Resources
Required
Fiscal
Responsibility
Status
'Year(s),
4
COMMERCIAL
4.1
Locate regional commercial nodes at
Reflect on Future Land Use Map (Sept.,
1
$
Spring,
Steering Com.
major intersections to accommodate
1998), incorporate into revisions to UDO.
1999
/Planning
uses that serve a regional market.
Commission/
Planning
4.1
Designate the central business district
Reflect on Future Land Use Map (Sept.,
1
$
Spring,
Steering Com.
as a regional trade/office center.
1998), incorporate into revisions to UDO.
1999
/Planning
Commission/
Planning
4.1
Locate commercial centers to provide
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
community level service and trade
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
needs at key intersections or on major
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
thoroughfares with appropriate
Com./ Planning
performance and design requirements.
4.1
Allow neighborhood level commercial
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
in mixed use areas with strict guidelines
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
for development.
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
Com./ Planning
5
MIXED USE
5.1
Develop performance criteria for mixed
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
use development to ensure proper
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
design, density, access, etc.
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
Com./ Planning
5.1
Designate undeveloped and
Reflect on Future Land Use Map (Sept.
1
$
Spring,
Steering
underdeveloped areas as mixed use to
'98), incorporate into revisions to UDO;
1999
Com/Planning
accommodate residential and less
Brd./ Planning
intense commercial, office, industrial
Com./ Planning
uses with strict performance controls.
6
RESIDENTIAL
NEIGHBORHOODS
6.1
Afford existing residential
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
neighborhoods performance standards
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
to keep the neighborhood character
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
consistent with the pattern of
Com./ Planning
development for the area.
6.1
Afford a higher level of protection for
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
existing residential neighborhoods by
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
limiting non-residential uses and
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
allowing public review.
Com./ Planning
39

LAND USE AND URBAN DESIGN
Policy# .
lmplementation Actions
Details for Actions
Priority
Resources %
Required
Fiscal
Year(s),
Responsibility
Status _
7
DESIGN/REGULATORY
7.1
Develop performance standards that
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
will allow the mingling of compatible
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
uses.
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
Com./ Planning
7.1
Develop specific urban design
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
standards to promote public spaces.
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
Com./ Planning
7.2
Conduct design charettes to develop
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
models (examples) of desirable
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
characteristics of development elements
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
(streets, parks, neighborhood
Com./ Planning
services,... ).
7.2
Provide incentives to property owners
Conduct research and develop changes to
2
$
1999 —
Planning
to preserve and reclaim key natural
unified development ordinance.
2000
resources through innovative design
using available public and private
resources towards creative approaches
toward acquisition.
7.2
Develop standards to ensure that heavy
Revise unified development ordinance.
1
$
Spring,
Planning Board/
industrial areas have adequate access
1999
Planning
and are properly distanced from and
Commission
minimize impacts such as noise, fumes
and lighting, on adjoining non-
industrial areas.
7.2
Provide design criteria for regional
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
nodes to ensure the appropriate
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
relationship to the existing streetscape.
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
Criteria will address the issues of
Com./ Planning
congestion, visual clutter, utilities and
the proper relationship with adjoining
properties.
7.2
Provide clear requirements for mixed
Conduct design charettes, research
1
$
Fall, 1998
Steering
use development to include maximum
regulations in other communities,
Com/Planning
square footage, buildable area ratio,
incorporate results into UDO revision.
Brd./ Planning
impervious surface coverage,
Com./ Planning
landscaping buffering, lighting, access,
height, density, exterior materials,
parking, orientation to the street, etc.
40

LAND USE AND URBAN DESIGN
POiIC #
y
Iin lementat�ori Actions _ _
1'
Details for Actions
Priority
Resources
R equired
Fiscal
Year(s),
Responsibility
Status
o..
8
JINFRASTRUCTURE
8.1
Promote alternative modes of
Conduct, research and develop changes to
2 °
$
1999—
Planning'
transportation in design guidelines.
unified development ordinance.
2000
8.1
Ref. Approved plans, such as Wilm.
Incorporate into applicable regulations.
2
$
1999—
Planning
Downtown Plan, Vision 2020 and the
2000
historic district guidelines, in applicable
development guidelines.
8.1
Modify applicable plans, regulations &
Incorporate into 1999 — 2000 budget
2
$
1999—
Planning/
budgets to focus provision of urban-
process.
2000
Admin.
level services within the areas desig. as
"Urban" on the land classification map.
8.1
Modify development regulations to
Revise unified development ordinance.
1
$
Spring,
Planning Board/
encourage development within the
1999
Planning
urban services area where existing
Commission
infrastructure is available.
8.1
Consider the cost of infrastructure that
Revise unified development ordinance.
2
$
Spring,
Planning Board/
are land use driven in modifying
1999
Planning
development regulations.
Commission
8.1
Initiate innovative capital facilities
Revise unified development ordinance.
2
$
Spring,
Planning Board/
financing as part of the development
1999
Planning
approval process.
Commission
8.1
Implement the comprehensive plan
Incorporate into 1999 — 2000 budget
2
$
1999—
Planning/
through the City and County capital
process.
2000
Admin.
improvement programs.
8.1
Pursue joint ownership by the City and
Continue City/County Utilities Committee.
1
1999—
City Council/
Present
County of major utility systems.
2000
County Com-
missioners/
Admin
8.1
Develop schematic collector street plan
Complete work on the collector street
1
$$
Spring,
Planning/
as a guide in the development approval
network in the metropolitan planning area;
1999
NCDOT/ TCC
process and implementation of an
possibly consulting contract.
effective transportation network.
8.1
Consider providing state of the art
Conduct research and develop changes to
3
$
1999—
Planning
technical services such as fiber optic
unified development ordinance.
2000
lines which make the area more
attractive to prospective coml. &
industrial companies when planning
other essential urban services.
41

IX. Transportation
ISSUES...................................................................................................
1. The full impact of new development and changes in land use on transportation systems, and the cost
of mitigating this impact, is not adequately addressed.
2. Efforts to improve flow of people and products are not sufficiently coordinated.
3. Alternative forms of transport are not given enough emphasis.
4. Strip development along thoroughfares.
5. The preservation of transportation corridors is inadequate.
6. The appearance of road arteries needs improvement.
7. The construction and maintenance of transportation facilities negatively impacts the environment,
particularly water quality.
8. Driveway access to arterial roads are not sufficiently controlled.
9. Traffic volume exceeds the capacity of street networks.
10. The negative affects of new roads on neighborhoods.
42

Transportation
POLICIES............................................................................................
- 11. TRAFFIC
1.1 The City and County shall initiate and support increased funding from state, and federal agencies
to improve the flow of people and products to and in the City and County.
1.2 The MPO and the urban area jurisdictions shall encourage the State and the federal authorities to
provide interstate connections to areas south of the urban area.
1.3 The City and County shall work with the MPO and NCDOT to increase the capacity of the
existing street network and other transportation facilities.
1.4 The County shall reduce the impact of new driveways on the roadway network.
1.5 The City and County shall require street connectivity and minimizing cul-de-sac development
through collector street planning.
1.6 In order that existing and planned thoroughfares may operate adequately, all new development
must adhere to the intent and policies of the Comprehensive Plan.
2. ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF TRANSPORTATION
2.1 The City and County shall support improved non -highway transportation facilities, including
rail, airport, and shipping facilities for both passengers and freight to access the area.
2.2 City and County shall work with the NCDOT and the MPO to encourage alternative forms of
transportation including regional rail, local transit, Transportation Demand Measures such as
van -pooling and ride sharing, and an inter -modal transportation system.
2.3 New development and improvements to existing facilities shall make provision for a
comprehensive network of bicycle and pedestrian facilities, including pedestrian causeways,
breezeways and crossings, on collector streets and major arterials. These facilities will provide
an alternative to the automobile.
3. AESTHETICS
3.1 The City and County, through the MPO, will encourage the State to improve the community
through enhancements of streetscaping, including the preservation and use of indigenous flora,
on new and existing streets.
3.2 The City and County shall ensure the preservation of adequate landscaping and tree protection
for parking lots, sidewalks and in street right-of-ways for both public and private projects.
43

4.
4.1 Priority shall be given to environmental concerns, in particular water quality and surface water
management, when considering the construction and maintenance of transportation facilities.
Reasonable and feasible road construction and design alternatives to protect water quality should
be considered for all projects.
4.2 Have regard for noise, air quality, and other environmental impacts on existing neighborhood
areas when constructing and maintaining transportation facilities.
5. CORRIDOR PROTECTION
5.1 Local government and the State shall identify and utilize sources of funds and incentives to
purchase or preserve thoroughfare or rail corridors in a timely and equitable manner. Where
necessary the City will participate in these improvements using impact fees, bonds and or tax
increases.
5.2 City, County and State will investigate and use regulatory provisions for preserving thoroughfare
and rail corridors.
5.3 The City and County will cooperate through an agreement to allow for the purchase of rail and
road corridors
44

TRANSPORTATION
Po1i
Implementation'Actions
sfarAcions
Resources
1?Yi secaarl
eibal�'
tatusPiotail
SRequre'
;u
..
,
1.0
Traffic
1.1.1
The Wilmington Urban Area Metropolitan
Implement ongoing MPO
$
1998-on
City of
Established
Planning Organization(MPO) shall coordinate
operations
Wilmington, New
process
programs aimed at improving the flow of people
Hanover Co.,
and products.
NCDOT, FHWA
1.1.2
The MPO's transportation planning horizon shall
MPO Staff currently implementing 25 year
$
Plan must be
City of
Established
be at a minimum 25 years to anticipate future
planning horizon
updated every
Wilmington, New
process
growth.
5 years
Hanover Co.,
NCDOT
1.2.1
Create an interstate type facilities to connect with I-
MPO works with NCDOT, SCDOT,
$$$$$
1998-?
MPO, SCDOT,
New Project
20 at Florence, South Carolina
FHWA, and Florence SC to determine
NCDOT, FHWA
feasibility, desirability and funding of
connection.
1.2.2
Create an interstate type facility to connect to
MPO works with NCDOT, SCDOT,
$$$$$
1998-?
MPO, SCDOT,
New Project
Charlotte, North Carolina.
FHWA, and Charlotte NC to determine
NCDOT, FHWA
feasibility, desirability and funding of
connection.
1.3.1
The City and County and NCDOT shall implement
MPO conducts study and makes
$$
1999-on
NCDOT, City of
Continuing
the Urban Area Congestion Management System
recommendations to NCDOT and the City
Wilmington
Project
and level of service standard currently being
of Wilmington
developed by the MPO.
1.3.2
All appropriate law enforcement agencies shall
Increased enforcement of traffic laws
$$
Continuous
State Highway
Continuing
improve the enforcement of traffic laws.
Patrol, New
Project
Hanover County
Sheriffs Dept.,
City of
Wilmington
Police
1.3.3
The City shall continue to improve the areas signal
Continuos upgrade of traffic operations data
1
$$
Continuous
City of
Continuing
system, and to provide the public with more
and equipment. Proactive public
Wilmington
Project
information on this program.
information effort.
1.3.4
Continue to work with NCDOT to improve that
Continuos cooperation
1
$
Continuous
City of
Continuing
portion of the signal system under their control.
Wilmington
Project
1.3.5
Work with the MPO and NCDOT to create
Create Plans, Receive Funding, Implement
1
$$$$$
1999-on
MPO responsible
New Project
interchanges at major intersections throughout the
for creating plans
45

TRANSPORTATION I i
Pali
Imptearaentatian Actaons
Resources
Fisoal'',.
#
:
Details forAct�ons
Priors
Required
:'
Year
R onsibyI
esp ty
Status';
.
-.o, i•� �..�..
.�. .,-"
>iax.v
1, vt,. �5..,, Y°+.,o„,P
„�.Id .. a'...�.
street network. Where necessary the City will
and acquiring
participate in these improvements using impact
funding, City of
fees, bonds and or tax increases.
Wilmington,
NCDOT, and
FHWA
responsible for
funding and
implementing
1.3.6
The City, NCDOT and other appropriate agencies
Create Plans, Receive Funding, Implement
1
$$$
1999-on
MPO and City
shall construct Separate bicycle and pedestrian
responsible for
facilities where appropriate.
creating plans and
acquiring
funding, City of
Wilmington,
NCDOT, and
FHWA
responsible for
funding and
implementing
1.4.1
The County shall adopt more stringent driveway
Prepare, review and adopt amendment to
1
$
1999
New Hanover
Ongoing
standards.
standards
Co./UDO
1.4.2
The City and County shall enact land use policies
Prepare, and adopt standards
$
1999
New Hanover
Ongoing
that minimize driveway access to major
Co./UDO
thoroughfares
1.5.1
Develop collector street networks for small areas.
Prepare collector street plans in cooperation
1
$$
1999-2001(?)
MPO, New
Plans currently
with property owners and affected
Hanover Co.,
created as
neighborhoods. Adoption by appropriate
City of
development is
board.
Wilmington
approved
Implemented as
areas built out by
development and
City of
Wilmington
1.6.1
Conform to the Comprehensive Plan policies by
Ongoing process conducted by Planning
I
$
Continuous
City of
Continuous
examining all proposed rezoning and subdivisions
Commissions, Technical Review staff and
Wilmington, New
compliance with the intents and policies of the
governing boards
Hanover Co.
46

TRANSPORTATION
Policy;;
Iiit leinentaticiri`ActionsE_
P
` x �,;;
Details fOr'Actlons
Prin
Resources
Fiscal ,
Res anstbah
-, -
-f
ty
Required
Yea
p
V"'
plan.
2.0
Alternative Forms of Transportation
2.1.1
Encourage the improvement of freight and
MPO, NH Co., City of Wilmington
1
$
Continuous
NCDOT, CSX
Continuous
passenger rail service to Wilmington and New
Hanover County.
2.1.2
Encourage the growth of the North Carolina State
NH Co., City of Wilmington,
$
Continuous
NC Ports
Continuous
Port at Wilmington with infrastructure
Authority, NC
improvements and increased channel depths for
Dept. of
shipping.
Commerce, Army
Corps. of
Engineers
2.1.3
Encourage the growth of the Wilmington
NH Co., City of Wilmington
$
Continuous
Airport
Continuous
International Airport
Authority,
NCDOT, City of
Wilmington, NH
Co.
2.2.1
Implement the Transportation Demand Measures
Plan identifies potential corporate
$$
1999
MPO, City of
Ongoing
program being developed by Wilmington
participants and users, design service, adopt
Wilmington,
Transportation Authority.
program, apply for Federal and State
NCDOT
assistance, implement
2.2.2
Periodically evaluate the feasibility of all forms of
Monitor existing service and identify
$
Continuous
MPO,
Continuous
public transportation including buses, trolleys, and
potential service expansion and
Wilmington
light rail for or any or all portions of the area,
modification opportunities. Evaluate areas
Transit Authority.
prepare a conceptual light rail master plan for the
outside of the City through transportation
NH Co.
urban area and participate in ongoing NCDOT
planning process.
Transportation
passenger rail and multi -modal feasibility studies.
2.2.3
Actively participate in ongoing NCDOT passenger
Support NCDOT efforts to provide
high
$$$$
1998 - ?
MPO, WTA,
Ongoing
rail and multi -modal facilities studies. Support
passenger rail service between Wilmington
Wilmington, New
funding objectives of the NCDOT in order to
and Charlotte.
Hanover County
assure viability of the Charlotte to Wilmington
passenger rail service.
2.3.1
Implement the recommendations of the New
Seek Federal, State and Local funding to
high
$$$
Continuous
NH Co. Bicycle
Continuous
Hanover County Bicycle Advisory Committee.
implement the Plan. Develop and
Advisory
implement Capital Improvements schedule
Committee,
for construction of facilities.
MPO, City of
Wilmington,
NCDOT
47

TRANSPORTATION
Policy,
Aa-,�M
Imptementation'Actions
Itesonrces
': cso
Fiscal
. ;
w , ., ,
2
. , ,. sz
Details farActton
pnonty,--.,i-
.
espon rty
R sib
Status'
#<
... , .;
e
ear,
2.3.2
Strongly encourage the State to provide bicycle
Request NCDOT to improve facilities for ,
high
$
Continuous
MPO, City of
Continuous
and pedestrian facilities in conjunction with new
Bicycle and pedestrian access as they
Wilmington,
construction and improvements to transportation
upgrade facilities
NCDOT
facilities.
3.0
Aesthetics
3.1.1
The City and County will participate with NCDOT
Identify corridors needing enhancement,
1
$$$
2000-2005
MPO, City of
New Project
to enhance streetscaping through the use of
develop plan for needed enhancements.
Wilmington,
regulations, impact fees, bonds and or tax
Request funding from NCDOT for
NCDOT
increases.
enhancements. Seek necessary local
funding for enhancements and maintenance.
3.1.2
The City and County will participate with NCDOT
Identify corridors for enhanced
* 1
$
1999-
MPO, City of
New Project
to enhance streetscaping by encouraging private
streetscaping. Coordinate maintenance and
Wilmington, NH
Unified
initiatives.
ROW access issues with NCDOT. Enact
Co., NCDOT
Development
regulations with incentives for
Ordinance
improvements. Work to inform and
organize private interests to improve
corridors.
3.1.3
City and County shall enforce regulations to create
Strictly enforce regulations to control
$
1999
City of
Unified
less obtrusive commercial signage and billboards.
billboards.
Wilmington, NH
Development
Co.,
Ordinance
3.2.1
Develop design standards, ordinances and
Prepare and adopt specific design standards
$
1999
City of
Unified
regulations that specifically identify the natural
and ordinances to reflect community
Wilmington, NH
Development
resources to be preserved with development and
standards for resource protection to give
Co.,
Ordinance
redevelopment..
specific guidance as to which resources to
protect.
4.0
Environment
4.1.1
NCDOT shall adhere to or exceed to State and
Review proposed NCDOT actions to insure
$
Continuous
MPO, Cape Fear
Continuous
Federal Environmental regulations for the
compliance with applicable regulations.
Council of
construction and maintenance of transportation
Governments NH
facilities.
Co. City of
Wilmington
4.1.2
The City of Wilmington shall establish standards
Prepare and adopt specific design standards
$$
2000
City of
Unified
for the construction of transportation facilities that
and ordinances to reflect community
Wilmington
Development
exceed State and Federal requirements for water
standards for resource protection to give
Ordinance
quality and surface water management.
specific guidance as to the required level of
water quality protection.
48

TRANSPORTATION
Polio �
� .. ;.tm lementatioit Actions..., ,., ;,
p
�.44
-,
� � � �k�. �..
< i o �f�ons
Deta if rAe
� �
Pnpn ty
rr'Sk+'Kw4V
Resources
•Fiscal ;
Re ans�bili
;� r,; � .
Status
&#
. r
0'
_
Requ�recl
Year
.,�.
.......;�r......
4.1.3
The City and County shall seek legislation to
Identify specific concerns with NCDOT's
$
1999
City of
Continuos
require NCDOT to exceed State and Federal
current practices and seek legislation to
Wilmington, NH
requirements for water quality and surface water
address these issues.
Co., MPO, Local
management.
environmental
groups and
agencies
4.2.1
All proposals for the construction and maintenance
All appropriate review boards shall review
$
Continuous
NH Co. City of
Continuous
of transportation facilities, shall be reviewed for
proposed local government and private
Wilmington
noise and other environmental impacts on existing
actions to insure compliance with
neighborhood areas.
applicable regulations.
5.0
Corridor Protection
5.1.1
Local and State Governments will identify
The MPO and NCDOT will prepare Phased
1
$$$
2000-2002
NCDOT, MPO,
New Project
thoroughfare and rail corridors as completely as
Environmental studies after adoption of the
NH Co. City of
possible through appropriate environmental
Thoroughfare Plan to identify proposed
Wilmington
studies.
corridors as closely as possible in
compliance with guidelines established by
the National Environmental Protection Act
(NEPA)
5.1.2
City, County and State will investigate and use
Identify and enforce provis-ions of State
$
1999
NH Co. City of
New Project
regulatory provisions for preserving thoroughfare
law that protect Thoroughfare Plan Corri-
Wilmington
Unified
corridors.
dors. Modify local ordinan-ces where
Development
necessary to pro -vide the maximum amount
Ordinance
of corridor protection allowed under State
law.
5.1.3
The City and County will cooperate through an
Establish an agreement between the City
$$
1999
NH Co., City of
New Project
agreement to allow for the purchase of rail and
and the County to allow the County to
Wilmington
Unified
road corridors.
request that the City proceed with necessary
Development
actions to improve the street network.
Ordinance
49

X. Community Infrastructure
ISSUES...................................................................................................
1. Uncoordinated, costly provision of non municipal services and facilities.
2. The high cost of infrastructure investment.
3. Storm water drainage problems caused by existing and future development.
4. Inadequate sewer and water services in some unincorporated areas.
5. Optimal location, use and maintenance of education facilities, some of which are overcrowded and
need improvements.
6. Insufficient provision of community open space, recreation and cultural facilities.
7. Recognition of Downtown Wilmington as the regional cultural nucleus.
8. Maintenance of adequate police and fire services in unincorporated areas.
9. Increased waste management problem due to growth and development.
10. The proliferation of telecommunication towers.
50

Community Infrastructure
POLICIES.................................................................................................
1. FACILITY AND SERVICE PROVISION
LL Provide timely, cost-effective and efficient capital facilities and community infrastructure
services based on the Growth Management Strategy and the Preferred Urban Structure.
1.2. Coordinate, rationalize and consolidate where appropriate, City, County and other governmental
agencies programs for the provision and maintenance of infrastructure and community facilities
and services.
1.3. Explore alternative forms of financing including impact fees, bonds, user fees, and tax increases
for the infrastructure improvements needed to have a high quality level of service and to prevent
a decline in the levels of service provided to the County -City residents. Infrastructure needs to be
addressed in this effort shall include transportation, education, sewer, water, recreation, libraries,
police, fire, stormwater management, and other services deemed to be appropriate.
_ 2. STORM WATER MANAGEMENT
2.1. Expand storm water management to include areas not incorporated in existing programs.
2.2. Develop a County stormwater management and water quality program that includes our adjacent
ocean, river, and estuarine systems.
2.3. Develop a City and County stormwater management program that fairly balances the financial
cost between existing and new development.
2.4. Prohibit and seek to eliminate collection systems that directly discharge stormwater to surface
waters.
2.5. Ensure that drainage from land use activities has a rate of flow and volume characteristics as
near to predevelopment conditions as possible to provide for the protection of our water quality.
3. SEWER AND WATER
3.1. Provide public sewer service to existing development in unincorporated areas that have
inadequate and malfunctioning septic systems and package treatment plants.
3.2. Consolidate the City and County sewer and water system.
3.3. Ensure optimal use of sewage treatment facilities.
3.4. Ensure the provision of sufficient, affordable water and sewer services to proposed new service
centers and industrial sites in the unincorporated areas of the Plan.
51

4. SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION
4.1. Give a higher priority to the maintenance and optimal use of existing education facilities.
4.2. Elementary schools and kindergartens should be encouraged to locate in areas where they would
provide the maximum benefit to adjoining neighborhoods.
4.3. New schools shall be constructed by New Hanover County to maintain an adequate level of
service.
4.4. Encourage greater coordination in planning and budgeting with the School Board and County
and City government.
5. CULTURAL ARTS AND RECREATION
5.1. Emphasis on economically distressed City neighborhoods with inadequate facilities.
5.2. Recognize the Downtown as the cultural nucleus which nurtures, supports and strengthens
cultural centers throughout the region.
5.3. Develop a joint master plan for a comprehensive system of open space, greenways, parks and
trails throughout the city and county that will provide for both the present and expected
population growth.
5.4. Preserve utility easements as part of the greenway system as passive open space areas and
combine them with trails and trail access areas where possible.
6. POLICE AND FIRE SERVICES
6.1. Provide timely and adequate staffing and facilities to maintain and improve the level of police
and fire services.
7. SOLID WASTE
7.1. Establish and maintain an environmentally responsible, cost effective system for managing solid
waste, that protects public health, and provides adequate waste disposal capacity, mandatory
solid waste collection and recycling services, and waste reduction opportunities.
7.2. Meet and exceed established waste reduction goal.
7.3. Continue to seek ways to reduce and manage the solid waste stream through establishment of
countywide garbage pick-up, expanded recycling programs, encouraging composting, expanded
hazardous waste pick-up/education, and multi jurisdictional cooperation.
7.4. Eliminate illegal trash dumping through strict monitoring and enforcement, including increased
fines, signage program, rewards, and other means.
7.5. Continue to support and improve the County's innovative incinerator and landfill system.
52

8. COMMUNICATION
8.1. Require telecommunication companies to share facilities through the joint use, and location of
telecommunication equipment.
53

COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE
1.0
FACILITY AND SERVICE
PROVISION
1.1.1
Develop a program for the rigorous
Fiscal Impact Study.
1
$$
1999
City and County
economic analysis of infrastructure and
Develop a modal to measure the cost impact
community facility investments, which
of major infrastructure expansion due to
considers the fiscal impact, level of
annexation proposals.
service, benefit, and the priority
according to a preferred urban structure.
1.1.2
Develop a program for joint
Investigate feasibility; formulate conditions
1
$
1999
City, County,
public/private infrastructure investment
and required agreements; and design
financial institutions
opportunities.
organizational structure
& developers.
1.1.3
Develop a joint City -County Committee
Committee review and implement program
1
$ for Com-
1999
City and County set
to review financing techniques and to
based on Committee recommendations.
mittee review.
up Committee with
recommend alternative financing
$ to $$$
private sector
methods.
depending on
representation.
program size.
1.2.1
Develop interlocal agreements and
Unified Development Ordinance
1
$
Currently
City and County
unified development codes to establish
Ongoing
consistency.
1.2.2
Develop a joint City and County Capital
Capital Facilities Plan
2
$
1990
City and County
Facilities Plan.
1.2.3
Strengthen infrastructure inspection and
Determine staffing requirements and
2
$
Currently
County
maintenance programs in the County.
develop infrastructure prerequisites
Ongoing
1.2.4
Develop guidelines for the interregional
Develop criteria, conditions, requirements
2
$
2002
City and County
sharing of sewer facilities when
and cost sharing formula.
economically feasible.
2.0
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT
2.1.1
Develop a storm water management and
Develop a program proposal for
1
$
1999 /
County and City
water quality program for existing and
consideration. Program shall include
2000
new development in the County.
adjacent ocean, river, and estuarine system.
Coordinate and join this program with
the existing City Program.
54

COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE
Create program to prohibit and methods to
eliminate collection systems that directly
discharge stormwater to surface waters.
Create program to ensure that drainage
from land use activities has a rate of flow
and volume characteristics as near to
predevelopment conditions as possible to
provide for the protection of our water
quality.
Develop a County storm water management
1
$$-$$$
1999 /
County and City
financing program. Investigate using the
depending on
2000
Unified Development Ordinance or similar
size of
program as a mechanism to carry out
program.
program. Coordinate and join this program
with the existing City program. Ensure that
there is an equitable and balanced financing
program for existing and new development
in the County and City.
3.0
SEWER AND WATER
3.1.1
Develop a Capital Facilities Plan for
Capital Facilities Plan
1
$
1999 —
County and City
areas that should be provided with sewer
2001
and water services based on
environmental concerns, water quality
concerns and servicing costs.
3.2.1
Develop County standards for the
Develop design standards
2
$
1999
County and City
installation of utilities that are consistent
to those of the City
3.3.1
Develop fiscal and environmental
Develop and evaluate alternative strategies.
3
$
2001
City, County and
responsible strategies for the long term
State
management and disposal of sewage
sludge.
55

COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE
3.4.1
On completion of the Thoroughfare Plan
Review zoning and prepare land use
2
$
2001
City and County
update, review the existing zoning and its
alternatives for consideration with next
potential to develop into service centers,
update of the Comprehensive Plan.
as well as the feasibility and cost of
providing water, sewer and other
infrastructure services to these areas.
3.4.2
Give higher priority to the servicing of
Identify priority areas.
1
$$
Ongoing
City and County
existing and new industrial sites.
Incorporate in City and County Servicing
annual
Program
4.0
SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION -
INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITIES
4.1.1
Provide annual funding for the sustained
Include funding in annual Education
1
$$
Ongoing
Board of Education
maintenance of facilities that serve both
budget. Ensure that school facilities in older
the existing and future education needs
areas of the City and County receive
of the community.
adequate maintenance.
4.1.2
Plan and locate schools to allow for
Determine needs; develop location criteria
2
$
Ongoing
Board of Education
future expansion, and to ensure better
and standards.
and shared use of the facilities and
campus.
4.1.3
Develop an understanding of the long-
Anticipate needs and technological trends,
1
$
Ongoing
Education agencies
term costs/implication of computer
and consider adaptable systems
technology.
4.2.1
Determine the needs and plan for the
Determine needs; develop location criteria
1
$
Ongoing
Board of Education
optimal location of elementary schools
and standards.
and kindergartens.
4.3.1
Explore the use of alternative forms of
Conduct a study. Create a committee to
1
$$ to $$$
New
Board of Education
financing for improving New Hanover
oversee study and carry out
depend-ing on
New Hanover
County Schools.
recommendations.
size of program
County Schools
Other County and
City pertinent
government
branches.
56

- i
COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE .
4.3.2
Adequately fund the New Hanover
Coordinate facilities program with the other
1
$$$
Ongoing
Board of Education
County School new school facility
County and City branches of government.
as result
New Hanover
program.
Create a quality control program to ensure
of passed
County Schools
high quality construction.
school
Other County and
bond
City pertinent
government
branches.
4.3.3
Provide a greater emphasis for athletic
Upgrade existing and build high quality
1
$$ to $$$
Ongoing
Board of Education
facilities at existing and new schools.
athletic fields, ball fields, tracks, pools,
depend-ing on
as result
New Hanover
gymnasiums, outdoor playgrounds for
size of program
of passed
County Schools
school children, with improved sodding,
school
Other County and
and related facility improvements,
bond
City pertinent
including maintenance.
government
branches.
4.4.1
Coordinate new school facilities and
Hold regular meetings with concerned
1
$
Needs to
Board of Education
maintenance upgrade program.
parties for increased coordination with
be
New Hanover
above 4.0 items with New Hanover County
ongoing
County Schools
Schools, School Board and other pertinent
Other County and
branches of County and City government.
City pertinent
Create benchmarks for monitoring progress.
government
branches
5.0
CULTURAL ARTS AND
RECREATION
5.1.1
Prepare and implement a joint
Prepare and Implement a Greenway/Open
3
$$
1999
City and County
City/County Greenway/Open Space Plan
Space Plan.
for the establishment of a contiguous
Determine requirements, funding,
Greenway System that links
acquisition and protection options; include
neighborhoods to community activity
trails. Insure that plan provides for both
centers, and serves the recreational and
present and expected population growth.
open space needs of the community.
5.1.2
Continue to implement, fund and join
Prepare and Implement a joint
1
$$
Ongoing
County
together the County and City Park Plans.
Greenway/Open Space Plan.
5.1.3
Develop public/private partnerships for
Prepare and Implement a Greenway/Open
1
$
1999
City and County
the provision of recreation facilities
Space Plan.
WA

COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE
5.1.4
Establish, in the unincorporated areas,
Prepare and Implement a Greenway/Open
1
$
1999
County
requirements for commercial and
Space Plan.
residential development to reserve land
for open space/recreation or provide a fee
in lieu.
5.1.5
Develop different acquisition/protection
Prepare and Implement a Greenway/Open
1
$
1999
City, County and
options for significant sites for open
Space Plan. Include
State
space/recreation, such as purchase,
utility easement preservation as part of the
public/private partnerships, conservation
greenway system as passive open space
easements and conservation trusts.
areas and combine them with trails and trail
access areas where possible.
5.1.6
Develop a public participation process
Public Participation Plan
1
Existing
1999
City and County
for the acquisition and preservation of
process to be
significant sites for open
reviewed
space/recreation.
5.1.7
Continue to expand and enlarge existing
Determine expected future growth and
1
$$$
Ongoing
County
library facilities to maintain the current
needs. .
level of service to the community.
5.1.8
Continue to support and improve the
Determine expected future growth and
2
$$
Ongoing
County
museum facilities.
needs and formulate a long term
development strategy.
5.1.9
Investigate the feasibility of providing a
Determine needs, requirements and
1
$$
Ongoing
City, County and
convention center to serve the needs of
feasibility.
surrounding local
the community and its surrounding area.
authorities
5.1.10
Investigate the feasibility of providing a
Determine needs, requirements and
2
$
Ongoing
City, County and
performing arts center to serve the needs
feasibility
surrounding local
of the community and its surrounding
authorities
area.
5.1.11
Encourage the provision of social and
Determine needs and priorities; and identify
2
Ongoing
Advocacy group(s)
cultural opportunities for the aging
opportunities.
for the elderly, City,
population.
County
58

COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE
5.2.1
Support and implement the goals and
1
$$
Ongoing
City, County,
recommendations of the Wilmington
DARE, Inc.,
Downtown Plan: Vision 2020, the Cape
Fear River Corridor Plan; and DARE,
Inc. that reinforces the cultural
importance of the Downtown area.
5.2.2-
Develop additional and support existing
Identify opportunities; develop and
1
$
Ongoing
City, County,
programs that specifically promote,
implement programs
strengthen and support Downtown
Wilmington as the regional cultural
center.
6.0
POLICE AND FIRE SERVICES
6.1.1
Plan and provide staffing and facilities
Determine projected future needs.
1
$$
Annual
City and County
for police and fire services at least
proportionate to the growth in the
community.
7.0
SOLID WASTE
7.1.1
The County and City together with the
Comprehensive Solid Waste Management
1
$
Ongoing
City, County and
Towns of Carolina Beach, Kure Beach,
Plan. Include methods to eliminate illegal
the Towns of
and Wrightsville Beach will continue
trash dumping by strict monitoring and
Carolina Beach,
their joint update of the Comprehensive
enforcement, increased fines, signage
Kure Beach, and
Solid Waste Management Plan every 3
program, rewards and other means. Include
Wrightsville Beach
years, and establish programs and set
continued support and improve innovative
goals for the management and reduction
incinerator and landfill system
of solid waste for the next 10 years.
7.1.2
Expand local government recycling.
Address with the Comprehensive Solid
1
$$
Ongoing
City and County
Waste Management Plan. Including:
expand collection programs; encourage
commercial recovery programs which focus
on paper fiber materials; promote local
private recovery/recycling initia-tives;
encourage composting; expand hazardous
waste pick-up and education; and promote
local construction -demolition recycling -
recovery programs.
M1

COMMUNITY INFRASTRUCTURE
8.0 COMMUNICATION
8.1.1 Amend regulations to require the joint Amend regulations; develop standards and 2 $ 1999 City and County
use and location of equipment on requirements.
existing telecommunication towers and
other public and private structures.

XI. Housing
ISSUES...................................................................................................
1. The City minimum housing program should be improved. The County should establish and adopt a
minimum housing code and enforcement program.
2. There is a documented need for affordable housing, particularly for low and moderate income
residents.
3. The City and County need to ensure that they are receiving the maximum amount of federal and state
financial opportunities for community and economic development.
4. There is a need to provide an increased amount of affordable rental housing.
5. There are an estimated 800 homeless persons County wide with the majority living in the City.
6. .Neighborhood residents need a mechanism to voice their concerns regarding growth and change, and
the County and City need an efficient way to provide information to residents.
7. There is a need for adequate housing for the special needs population, elderly, and disabled in the
City and County.
8. With the growth of UNC-Wilmington and Cape Fear Community College, students will need
adequate on and off campus housing.
61

Housing
POLICIES............................................................................................
1. MINIMUM HOUSING PROGRAM
The City shall enhance the minimum housing program. The County shall adopt a minimum housing
program with enforcement.
2. AFFORDABLE HOUSING PROGRAMS
The County and City shall continue to support and enhance a broad range of affordable housing programs.
Explore alternative forms of financing including impact fees, bonds, user fees, and tax increases for
affordable housing.
3. MAXIMIZE FEDERAL AND STATE FUNDING
The County and City shall maximize funding opportunities from federal and state sources for community
and economic development.
4. RENTAL AFFORDABLE HOUSING
The City and County shall increase affordable rental housing.
5. HOMELESS
The County and City shall cooperate with non-profit organizations to provide temporary and transitional
shelter to persons who are homeless and enhance a job referral program.
6. NEIGHBORHOOD ASSOCIATIONS
The County, City, and residents shall be encouraged to use neighborhood associations for outreach
information and education.
7. SPECIAL NEEDS AND ELDERLY
The City and County shall cooperate with non-profit organizations to ensure an adequate supply of housing
for special needs, the elderly, and the disabled.
8. ADEQUATE UNCW AND CFCC STUDENT HOUSING
Working together the County, City, UNC-Wilmington, and Cape Fear Community College shall meet
student housing needs.
62

HOUSING
1.0
MINIMUM HOUSING PROGRAM
1.1
The City shall improve its minimum
1.1.1 Develop code enforcement strategies that
1
$$
Current
City
Underway
housing enforcement program.
emphasize improvements in housing quality and
preservation. A balance is recognized between
expenses to property and home owners, and
better living conditions for occupants.
1.2
The County shall adopt a minimum
1.2.1 Draft and adopt a minimum housing code.
1
$
199-101
County
None
housing code and establish an
A balance is recognized between expenses to
enforcement program.
property and home owners, and better living
conditions for occupants.
1.2.2 Establish position(s) and hire code
1
$$
199= 01
County
None
enforcement officer(s).
1.3
The City and County shall ensure that
Ensure that there is adequate regulations and
1
$
On-
City and County
Ongoing City.
there is strong code enforcement to
code enforcement staff to remedy this situation.
going
New for County.
remedy areas and lots with abandonded
See 1.1 for City and 1.2 for County.
City.
vechicles, trash, debris, and boarded up
199= 01
housing.
for
County
2.0
AFFORDABLE HOUSING
PROGRAMS
2.1
Increase support of affordable housing
2.1.1 Home Ownership Pool loan program
1
$ existing
On-
City
Ongoing
programs.
(HOP)
$$
going
County
Direct Loans and Home Loans for housing
expanded
HUD
rehabilitation
programs
Private Lending
Fannie Mae Lease Purchase
Institutions
Project Home
Community Development Block Grant Program
Home Investment Partnership
2.1.2 Establish an affordable housing advocacy
2
$
'02-'03
City, County
None
coalition with wide representation.
Nonprofit
housing providers
2.2
Investigate and act upon ways to
2.2.1 Establish a mortgage revenue bond
1
$ study
199-101
City
None
increase affordable housing supply and
program to provide affordable housing backed
$$ program
County
ownership for low and moderate income
by appropriate sources. Conduct a study with
residents.
recommendations.
��j

HOUSING
2.2.2 Establish a land trust program for
1
$ study
On-
City
Ongoing
affordable housing land acquisition. Conduct a
$$ program
going
County
study with recommendations.
2.2.3 Encourage participation in the down
1
$$
On-
City
Ongoing
payment assistance program. With the aid of
going
County
grants, this program allows down payment
NC Housing
assistance for closing costs.
Finance Agency
2.2.4 Investigate methods to reduce
1
$
On-
City
Ongoing
development costs for affordable housing.
going
County
Review development review process and codes.
Make appropriate changes to Unified
Development Ordinance.
2.2.5 Expand existing education programs on
2
$$
'02= 03
City
None
affordable housing opportunities, including
expanded
County
home ownership for first time buyers.
program
2.2.6 Set a target for future increased
2
$ study
'02= 03
City
None
homeownership emphasizing first time home
County
buyers.
Non-profit
Conduct a study with recommendations.
housing providers
Private lending
institutions
2.2.7 Encourage commercial banks to
1
$$
199-101
City
None
participate in a below market rate mortgage
expanded
County
interest program.
program
Private lending
institutions
2.2.8 Inventory available sites as a resource for
2
$
'02-'03
City
None
new residential develop-ment and provide
County
incentives for the development of new housing.
Con -duct a study with recommendations.
2.2.9 Investigate how to strengthen partnerships
2
$
'02-'03
City
None
with for profit developers to provide affordable
County
housing including density bonuses that provide
additional affordable housing units. Conduct a
study with recommendations include with
Unified Development Ordinance.
Md

HOUSING
2.2.10 Conduct study with recommendations
2
$
'02-'03
City
None
regarding zoning changes that require mixed
County
income residential developments.
2.2.11 Conduct study with recommendations
2
$
'02-'03
City
None
regarding: incentives for an employer -assisted
County
housing program to assist development of
affordable housing.
2.2.12 Cooperate with the Wilmington Housing
1
$ coordin-
On-
City
Ongoing
Authority in the maintenance, renovation and
ation
going
Wilmington
construction of affordable housing.
$$$ Jervay
Housing
project and
Authority
other
projects
2.2.13 Encourage scattered site affordable
1
$
199= 01
City County
None
housing.
3.0
MAXIMIZE FEDERAL AND
STATE FUNDING
3.1
Consider creating a consolidated
Discussion between City and County and staffs
1
$
199= 01
City
None
County and City Community
and elected officials. Consult with HUD.
County
Development Block Grant program.
3.2
Insure that federal and state community
Use existing staff.
1
$
On-
City
Ongoing
and economic development funding
going
County
opportunities are being maximized.
4.0
RENTAL AFFORDABLE HOUSING
4.1
Improve and expand the City rental
Conduct study with recommendations.
1
$ study
On-
City
Ongoing
rehabilitation loan program.
$$ program
going
4.2
Establish a County rental rehabilitation
Conduct study with recommendations.
1
$ study
199 '01
County
None
loan program.
$$ program
M

HOUSING
4.3
Ensure that there is funding for a rent-
Conduct study with recommendations.
1
$ study
199-101
City
Ongoing
to -own program in both the City and
Determine appropriate level of funding.
Decide
County
County. This program would enable a
funding
Non-profit
renter to apply rent payments towards
level range
housing providers
the purchase of a home.
$ to $$
4.4
Explore the possibility that apartment
Conduct study with recommendations.
3
$ study
'04= 05
County
None
complexes that are converted to
$$ program
City
condominiums provide affordable units,
or payments into a City and County
affordable housing or non-profit
housing program.
5.0
HOMELESS
5.1
Expand programs for homeless shelters
Continued funding and support for Continuum
1
$ existing
On-
City, County,
Ongoing
with adequate quality accommodations
of Care and other related programs. Ensure that
program
going
HUD,
with emphasis on housing for the
the areas of the City and County that have high
coordinating with
mentally disabled.
homeless concentrations receive specific
1
$$ expand
'99= 01
Non profit
None for expanded
neighborhood outreach to remedy the challenge.
program
housing providers
program
including, Good
Shepherd House,
Salvation Army,
and Cape Fear
Rescue Mission.
5.2
Expand job referral program for the
Through the Continuum of Care process address
2
$$
'02-'03
Through
None for expanded
homeless.
counseling and job referral program to assist
expanded
City, County
program
homeless persons and households achieve self
program
Non -profits such
sufficiency.
as the Good
Shepherd House.
6.0
NEIGHBORHOOD
ASSOCIATIONS
6.1
Create neighborhood guidelines.
Conduct a study with recommendations.
1
$ study
199-101
County
None
Discussion on: methods for public outreach; the
$$ public
City
impact of new development on adjoining
outreach
Including:
neighborhoods, such as density; housing by
Council of
type; home ownership; rental concerns; and
Neighborhoods
drainage. Create booklet.
Association and
other similar
organizations
:.

HOUSING
7.0
SPECIAL NEEDS AND ELDERLY
7.1
Establish a housing program for the
Conduct study with recommendations for
2
$ for study
'02-'03
City
None
special needs, elderly, and disabled, that
program creation; include congregate living
County
is integrated throughout the community.
arrangements for the elderly, and other special
$$ program
Non-profit
needs populations, e.g. nursing homes. Study
housing providers
how to integrate with private sector.
Private business
7.2
Modify zoning regulations where
Conduct a study with recommendations to
2
$ for study
'02-'03
City
None
appropriate to encourage housing for
include with Unified Development Ordinance.
County
the special needs, elderly, disabled.
8.0
ADEQUATE UNCW AND CFCC
STUDENT HOUSING
8.1
Develop an on and off campus student
Conduct a study with recommendations.
3
$
'04-'05
City
None
housing program for UNC-Wilmington.
County
UNCW
8.2
Develop an on and off campus student
Conduct a study with recommendations.
3
$
'04205
City
None
housing program for Cape Fear
CFCC
Community College.
67

XH. Economic Development
ISSUES...................................................................................................
There needs to be improved economic diversification, and continued effort to attract employers that
have high paying jobs.
2. Continue efforts to attract and retain business to economically distressed areas.
To remain competitive into the next decade the State port will need to deepen its harbor, improve
inland highway and rail access, and upgrade the terminal.
4. The area could increase water dependent marine related employment opportunities with: marine
technology; aquaculture; the NC Aquarium at Fort Fisher; and boat manufacturing and marinas.
5. The Wilmington International Airport needs to expand to improve its competitiveness while working
to ensure community compatibility.
6. There is a need to balance tourism with a diversified economy.
7. There is a need to increase workforce preparedness, especially for the marginally trained and under
educated.
68

Economic Development
POLICIES.................................................................................................
1. GENERAL ECONOMY
Develop a coordinated economic development strategy to attract high paying employers, that is economically
diverse and environmentally mindful.
2. IMPROVING ECONOMICALLY DISTRESSED AREAS
The City and County with non profit and for profit organizations shall work to attract and retain business in
areas that are economically distressed.
3. WILMINGTON STATE PORT
The County and City shall work with the State Port in achieving mutually acceptable development goals.
4. MARINE ECONOMY
The City and County shall support the water dependent marine economy.
5. AIRPORT
The County and City shall cooperate with the New Hanover County Airport Authority to increase the
competitiveness, of the Wilmington International Airport while being mindful of the compatibility with
adjacent businesses and homes.
6. TOURISM
The City and County shall encourage tourism as part of a balanced and diversified economy.
7. SKILLED WORKFORCE AND EDUCATIO
The County and City and private sector shall cooperate with schools to develop a properly trained work force
with employable skills.
69

1.0 I GENERAL
1.1 Establish a task force with a
mission to attract high
paying diverse employers
and consider incentives.
economic development
program.
Economic Development
agency, or consultant to guide
process.
Meet and create framework to proceed.
Resolve who would compose task force;
include private sector.
Address topic for set time.
End with recommendations to proceed after
task force finished.
Select lead public agency or consultant to
do study with recommendations.
Include these following items.
1.2.1 Strengthen existing public and
private programs that target existing
business for new expansion and job
creation, including small businesses.
1.2.2 Establishing a Research and
Development Park including infrastructure,
with business connections to UNCW and
CFCC.
1.2.3 Investigate establishing a local
branch of the Office of Industrial Extension
Service in the County.
1.2.4 Increase public outreach and
improve awareness of the importance of
business and industry to the tax base.
70
Lead agency or consultant
With representation that should include:
Private sector
Wil. Industrial Develop. , Inc.
Co. Commissioners, City Council
Cape Fear Tomorrow
UNCW, CFCC, Public Schools
Chamber of Commerce, Black Cham. Com.
Wilmington State Port
Wil. International Airport
Small Business Coalition
Wil. New Han. Co. Commun. Devel. Corp.
Small Business & Tech. Develop. Center—
UNCW Partners for Economic Inclusion
agency and or consultant.
None
None

1.5
■ri
Economic Development
Investigate expanding the
Conduct a study with recommendations.
1
$ study
199= 01
UNCW with NC State and NC A&T
Program
engineering cooperative
Cost and logistics of expanding the
coordination.
currently is with
education program between
engineering program.
$$ ex-
UNCW and NC
UNCW, NC State and NC
Consider enhancing ties to local business.
panded
State.
A&T.
program
Enhance: promotion of the
1.4.1 Strengthen promotion and incentives
1
$
Ongoing
Wilmington Regional Film Commission
Ongoing
local film industry; and
on behalf of the City and County.
coordinating with: Private film industry;
education opportunities.
Meet with Task Force regarding continuous
City and County.
updates on "Film Guidelines."
Establish and improve existing procedures
for location filmmaking with Police, Fire
and government.
Create program to improve existing public
relations with the community regarding on -
location film making.
Improve website, update computer
programs with maintenance.
1.4.2 Strengthen and nurture the UNCW
2
$$
Ongoing
UNCW
Ongoing,
Film Studies education program.
Consider establishing a
Conduct a study on the best method to
2
$ study
'0243
An existing agency or consultant to conduct
None
program with incentives for
achieve this with recommendations for
study possibly with New Han. Co. Regional
larger companies to assist
setting up program.
Medical Center, or UNCW, or the Early
employees with high
Childhood Faculty of CFCC with the County
quality affordable child day
and City.
care.
Develop a program to
Conduct a study with recommendations for
2
$
'0243
Likely private initiative with possible
None
attract professional sports.
program creation.
government partnership.
71

Economic veve
ECONOMICALLY
DISTRESSED AREAS
2.1
Use of Community
Identify and prioritize projects. Act upon
1
$$
Ongoing
City
Ongoing
Development Block Grant
proposals that have real potential to create
County
funds for programs and
jobs. Insure that money is leveraged to
activities that create jobs
increase success.
for low and moderate
income persons.
2.2
Encourage and support the
Research: which existing businesses have
1
$
199= 01
City
None
federal Small Business
contracts with the Federal Gov't. Educate
Wilmington Industrial Development, Inc.
Administration HUBZone
potential clients regarding program.
program to attract business
Coordin-ate possible: relocation, and
and jobs to the
expansion of existing businesses.
economically challenged
areas of Wilmington.
2.3
Encourage the creation of
Expand family resource centers and
2
$ existing
Ongoing
City, Including: Wilmington Community
Ongoing
family resource centers and
programs into distressed areas. Support
Coalition
programs.
existing programs. Examples include the
$$
'02=03
Bottom, and Long Leaf Park Resource
expanded
None
Center.
program
2.4
Encourage public and
Create flexible regulations in the Unified
2
$
199-101
City
None
private business
Development Ordinance.
County
partnerships for the
Private Business
development of speculative
properties.
2.5
Ensure that the economic
Study is underway and recommendations
2
Project
Ongoing
City
Ongoing
revitalization of Greenfield
will be forthcoming.
could
I
Wilmington Industrial Development, Inc.
Industrial Park occurs.
range
from $ to
72

Economic Development
PORT
3.1
Support the Wilmington
Using the ports Master Capital
1
$ for
Ongoing
Wilmington State Port
Ongoing
State Port facilities to create
Development Plan, follow the
review-
Federal agencies, including US Army COE
a more competitive
recommendations; including, deepening the
ing study
NC Dept. Commerce
shipping port.
shipping channel, and upgrading the
and
NC DOT
terminal. Follow the recommendations of
coordin-
CSX Railroad
the Transportation section of the
ation.
City and N. H. County
Comprehensive Plan for improved inland
Brunswick Co.
highway and rail access.
$$$ for
carrying
outthe
recom-
menda-
tions.
3.3
Balance the needs of the
Adhere to Cape Fear River Corridor Plan
3
$
Ongoing
Wilmington State Port
Ongoing
State Port with the
recommendations. Review study and
City and N. H. County
recreational boating on the
coordinate with concerned parties.
Brunswick Co.
Cape Fear River.
Coast Guard
4.0
MARINE ECONOMY
4.1
Support aquaculture
4.1.1 Enhance promotion of the
2
$
Ongoing
UNCW Center for Marine
Program exists,
research and marine
environmentally friendly aquaculture
NC Sea Grant Program
would con-sider
technology.
research technology.
NC Marine Trades Services
increased
promotion.
4.1.2 Increase financial support of the
2
$$
'02= 03
Cape Fear Community College NC Marine
Would con-sider
existing marine technology education
Trades Services
increased
program at CFCC.
financial
support.
4.2 Support the expansion Work with the Aquarium to ensure smooth 1 $$ Ongoing NC Aquarium at Fort Fisher Ongoing
effort of the NC Aquarium expansion effort of building facilities. County
at Fort Fisher. Chamber of Commerce
4.3 Support the efforts of Enhance the existing promotion, 2 $ Ongoing Small Business and Technology Development Ongoing
marine trade services for advertisement, and public outreach. Center - UNCW
expanded boat manufac- Coastal Waterways Heritage Tourism Council
turing, and boating services
such as marinas.
73

Economic Development
#
Implementation Actions
Details
cY ,
t
y..aRources::
nongRe
re
FiscalPoli
y
Responsibili
,
Stat
4.4
Address the of loss of
Conduct a study with recommendations
2
$
'0243
Coastal Waterways Heritage Tourism Council
None
public accessible boat slips
by consultant or agency.
Small Business and Technology Development
and marinas to traveling
Center — UNCW
boaters.
County, City
5.0
AIRPORT
5.1
Encourage airport
Support the airport master plan with regard
1
$
On -going
Wilmington International Airport
Ongoing
economic growth and
to economic growth. Address compatibility
County
development.
with the Land Use and Transportation
City
policies of the Comprehensive Plan.
Coordinate with concerned parties.
6.0
TOURISM
6.1
Promote Wilmington and
Conduct a study with recommendations on
2
$
'0243
Possibly use a consultant for study with:
None
the County as an area for
how to increase heritage -historic
Carolina Heritage Tourism Network
heritage and historic
preservation tourism; study likely
Cape Fear Convention and Visitors Bureau
preservation tourism.
conducted by a consultant.
1898 Foundation
6.2
Support promotion of
Support the existing promotion.
2
$
On -going
Coastal Waterways Heritage Tourism Council
Ongoing
Wilmington as a boating
with
destination hub and related
NC Marine Trades Services
eco-tourism activity.
7.0
SKILLED
WORKFORCE AND
EDUCATION
7.1
Enhance support for school
7.1.1 Expand the existing Dual Enrollment
1
$$
199-101
Cooperation with:
Exists but needs
and work programs with
high school and community college
Cape Fear Community College New Hanover
pro -motion;
Cape Fear Community
program that emphasizes vocation training.
Co. Board of Education
consider
College and New Hanover
Advertise to students and parents.
Pender County
increased
Co. Public Schools,
Shaw University
financial
particularly with vocation
support.
74

Economic Development
7.1.2 Expand the cooperative public 1
school and work internship programs for
students. Develop a cooperative agreement.
Expand the Job Ready internship program
between business and the New Hanover
County Public Schools.
7.2 Expand a job skills Expand the Human Resources Development 1
program for the post high Program with Continuing Education.
school aged under -
prepared.
199-101 New Hanover Co. Board of Education Exists but needs
NC State Dept. of Commerce promo-tion.
Volunteer efforts Cape Fear Partners for
Career Success.
Unions.
under -funded.
7.3
Consider establtsnmg an
Conduct a study witn recommendation e.g.
1
:5
'V9-U1
New Hanover Co. tsoara or taucatlon
!None
independent Board of
using a consultant. Study other systems in
possibly with consultant.
Education supplemental
other states with this authority.
State
education tax to improve
the quality of public school
education.
7.4
Address the public school
Conduct a study and write guidelines,
1
$
199-01
New Hanover Co. Board of Education
None
drop out challenge and high
brochure, public affairs messages.
possibly with consultant.
school students working
Discussion to include, drop out challenge,
excessively during school
excessive work by high school students,
year.
and methods to encourage employers to
assist teenage persons to obtain a high
school diploma.
75

XIII. Historic Preservation
ISSUE...................................................................................................
1. The City and County need to identify protect and plan for the preservation of historic resources.
Historic Preservation
POLICIES.............................................................................................
1. The County and City in cooperation with non profit and for profit organizations shall preserve, and
provide regulatory and cultural guidance for historic sites and areas.
2. Take proactive steps to identify and protect important historic and archaeological resources including an
updated inventory of significant areas or sites and updates to current regulations to require identification
of potential impacts, a plan for protection of sensitive areas/sites or a mitigation/ data recovery plan
where preservation is not possible. Density credits should be used to aid in area/ site protection plans.
3. Support a community archaeological program that will provide assistance to help salvage threatened
historic and archaeological sites and promote public education/ participation.
4. Continue the redevelopment of historic downtown Wilmington as a high priority, building on past
successes and carefully matching public incentives with private investment. Care should be taken to
preserve the visual character and historic atmosphere of old Wilmington.
76

Historic Preservation
y
s
TT
G,
1.1
Update and revise existing historic district
Complete guidelines and
1
$
198-199
City, (Preservation Consultant, in
Draft form
design guidelines to provide direction to the
implement them.
process of refining guidelines with
homeowners, builders and contractors, and to
public's and Historic District
preserve visual and historic character in the
Commission input)
redevelopment of downtown Wilmington.
1.2
Conduct a city- and county -wide historic
Complete survey.
1
$$
198-199
Historic Wilmington Foundation,
In process
resource survey update that identifies
Inc., City, and County
additional historic resources, both
architectural and natural.
1.3
Update existing National Register District
Retain consultant to conduct
1
$
199-100
City, Historic Wilmington
None
survey to identify contributing,
survey update.
Foundation, Inc.
noncontributing resources for tax credit
purposes, and demolished resources and new
construction.
1.4
Expand boundaries of city's local historic
Complete study and designation
1
$
199
City, Historic Wilmington
Draft form
districts towards the north and south.
report.
Foundation, Inc., Consultant
1.5
Expand the boundaries of the National
Conduct reconnaissance survey
1
$
'99-'03
City, Historic Wilmington
None
Register District to encompass adjoining areas
with recommendations.
Foundation, Inc
that have become eligible for inclusion:
1.6
Enhance existing affordable housing programs
See Housing implementation
1
$$
Ongoing
City, and WHFD, Inc.
On -going
within the historic districts. Adopt design
actions.
guidelines and building codes to facilitate
renovations in low-income areas.
1.7
Protect and maintain historic brick street
Conduct survey and research
1
$ study
199-100
City, Historic District Commission,
On -going
pavers.
and implement program.
$ program
Historic Wilmington Foundation, Inc.
1.8
Include Historic Preservation Plan as an
Collect comments as
1
$
'98-'99
City, Historic District Commission,
None
element of the Comprehensive Plan
Comprehensive Plan is updated.
Historic Wilmington Foundation, Inc.
1.9
Initiate the establishment of Conservation
Conduct public education.
3
$
'02204
City, Historic District Commission,
None
Districts.
Historic Wilmington Foundation, Inc.
1.10
Establish local historic districts in early 20t -
Conduct reconnaissance survey
2
$$
'99-'03
City, Historic District Commission,
None
century neighborhoods such as Forest Hills
with recommendations.
Historic Wilmington Foundation, Inc.
and Sunset Park.
1.11
Establish historic resource design guidelines
Use guidelines created by other
3
$
'04-'06
County, City, Historic Wilmington
None
that pertain to districts and landmarks to be
county jurisdictions as a model
Foundation, Inc.
designated by the future County Historic
and revise appropriately.
Preservation Commission.
77

Historic Preservation
etails for Actions
1.12
Coordinate historic preservation efforts and
public education with non-profit historic
preservation groups.
Continuous outreach and
interaction.
1
$
Ongoing
City, County, Historic District
Commission, Historic Wilmington
Foundation, Inc., DARE, Inc.
On -going
1.13
Take proactive steps to identify and protect
Include: updated inventory of
2
$ for study
199-1101
City and County
Need to add to
important archaeological resources.
significant areas or sites;
study
updates to current regulations to
require identification of
potential impacts; a plan for
protection of sensitive areas;
sites and mitigation; and use
density credits to aid in area and
site protection plans.
Support a community
2
$$ for
199-101
City and County
Need to add to
archaeological program that will
program
pro -gram
provide assistance to help;
salvage threatened land and
water sites archaeological sites;
and promote public education
and participation.
78

XIV. Storm & Natural Hazards
ISSUES..................................................................................................
Three hurricanes and five major storms in the past few years have focused attention on the need for
examination of many existing ordinances and building codes.
2. Use of land susceptible to hurricane and flooding damage must be scrutinized to assure the safety of
visitors and citizens.
3. It is the responsibility of the governments of New Hanover County, the City of Wilmington and the beach
Communities to provide a plan of action to protect the lives and property of their citizens and visitors.
POLICIES...................................................................................................
1. Storm and Natural hazard Mitigation, Evacuation and Recovery Policies
1.1. In the event of a hurricane or disaster the City and County shall assess measures to safeguard
future populations from development which may put increased numbers of people at risk in
hazard incidents.
1.2. A Recovery Task Force may be appointed with the responsibility for directing reconstruction
within New Hanover County after a damaging storm.
1.3. The City and County shall retain on a seasonal basis an assistance facilitator/consultant who, as
directed by the County Manager, will be responsible for making recommendations and
coordinating assistance to elected officials, the Recovery Task Force and the citizenry in the
event of a Natural Hazard occurrence.
1.4. Immediately remove and clean up debris and restore services following a major storm event.
79

Storm`&Natural Hazards
I
Storm and Natural Hazard Mitigation,
Evacuation and Recovery Policies
1.1.
The City and County shall closely
Planning and Inspections department review
NHCO,
$
1
Ongoing
Current preparedness level can
monitor all reconstruction efforts
process must be in tact and ready to respond
Wilmington,
be improved upon
involving both public and private
in case of hazard event. Follow
Beach
utilities, including roads, to provide for
recommendations of Project Impact and
Communities:
less vulnerable redevelopment after a
Hazard Mitigation Planning Initiative
Planning,
hurricane
Inspections
1.1
Discourage high intensity uses and large
Enforce current zoning and subdivision regs
NHCO,
$
structures from being constructed within
regarding development in the floodplain.
Wilmington,
the 100 year floodplain, erosion prone
Promote density tradeoffs for development
Beach
areas, and other locations susceptible to
out of floodplain.
Communities:
hurricane and flooding hazards.
Planning,
Inspections;
Private
Following a storm event, take advantage
Review repetitive loss properties, apply for
NHCO,
of opportunities to acquire or purchase
grant funding when available. Have
Wilmington,
land located in storm hazard areas which
database of priority properties for
Beach
are rendered unbuildable. The property
acquisition. Follow recommendations of
Communities:
should satisfy objectives including, but
Project Impact and Hazard Mitigation
Planning,
not limited to the conservation of open
Planning Initiative
Inspections
space, scenic areas, and provision of
public water access.
1.1
Declare a moratorium on the acceptance
Take action - Follow recommendations of
Planning
of any request for rezoning in flood
Project Impact and Hazard Mitigation
Boards and
prone areas other than for rezoning to a
Planning Initiative
Commissions,
less intense use, unless that rezoning
Elected
request is initiated by the City or
Officials
County.
1998
1.1
Declare a moratorium on the permitting
Identify areas impacted by hazard, declare
Planning and
$
H
Spring,
of any new construction, new utility
moratorium. Follow recommendations of
Inspections
1999
hook-ups, or redevelopment
Project Impact and Hazard Mitigation
Departments,
construction that would increase the
Planning Initiative
Planning
intensity of the land uses existing before
Boards and
the hurricane or disaster.
Commissions,
Elected
Officials
80

Storm & Natural Hazards
1.1
Request that new assessment of hazard
Prepare request for Elected official
Planning
$$
areas be performed, depending on the
signature, make request
departments,
extent of flooding and the changes to
Follow recommendations of Project Impact
elected
shoreline and inlets caused by the
and Hazard Mitigation Planning Initiative
officials
hurricane.
1.2
The Task Force shall be responsible for
Asses storm damages and impacts, organize
Planning
$
M
On -Going
advising the Board of the County
meetings with Commisioners, advise
Commissioners on a diverse range of
post -storm issues.
1.2
A building moratorium may be
Analyze post storm impacts, critical facility
Task force,
$
authorized or extended by the Recovery
damage, asses need for moratorium, autorize
County
Task Force through a resolution by the
if necessary.
Commissioners
Board of County Commissioners and/or
City Council
1.3
The City and County shall retain on a
• Determining the types of assistance
County
$
M
1999-2000
seasonal basis an assistance
available to the City and County and
Managers
facilitator/consultant who, as directed by
the type of assistance most needed.
office,
the County Manager
• Assisting in the coordination of federal
facilitator
disaster recovery effort.
• Coordinate State and Federal programs
of assistance.
• Informing the Citizenry of the types of
assistance programs available.
• Recommending to the Recovery Task
Force and Board of Commissioners
programs which are available and then
acting as facilitator in securing those
programs
1.4
The City and County shall be
Coordinate necessary departments, prioritize
Managers
$$$
responsible for the overall supervision
clean up effort, assign available resources to
office,
of cleanup and disposal of debris
efficiently perform clean up
deparment
resulting from an intense storm event
heads
1.4
In hurricane damaged areas, give
Asses damages, prioritize repair work.
Task force,
$$
H
Spring,
priority to those repairs that restore
Follow recommendations of Project Impact
managers,
1999
service to the greatest number of people.
and Hazard Mitigation Planning Initiative
deparmtent
heads
81

i
Storm & Natural Hazards
1.4
Where economically feasible replace or
Perform damage assesment, determine
Deparment
555
relocate public utilities, that have
facilities that should be replaced, seek grants
heads,
sustained major damage due to a
or other funding, relocate facilities. Follow `
managers
hurricane storm event, away from
recommendations of Project Impact and
offices,
hurricane hazard areas or strengthen
Hazard Mitigation Planning Initiative
Emergency
their construction
management,
private
companys ie.
Phone and
electric
1.4
The North Carolina Department of
Remove debris form roadways
NCDOT,
$$$
H
Spring,
Transportation(NCDOT) will remove
Wilmington,
1999
and clean up debris from publicly
Beach
maintained roads immediately following
Communities
a maior storm event
1.4 The City of Wilmington will be Remove debris from streets. Wilmington $$$ M 1999-2000
responsible for the clean-up of City DOT
streets
1.4 Private development homeowners will Remove debris from roads — contract Private $$
be responsible for the clean-up of debris services or perform removal, homeowners
on private roads, or public roads not yet
accepted by NCDOT
82

XV. Land Classifications/Map
The land classification system is a means of assisting in the implementation of the Comprehensive
Plan policies. It allows the local government and its citizens to specify those areas where certain policies
will apply. The land classification system is intended to be supported and complemented by zoning, sub-
division and other land use management tools. Together they provide the guidance to help realize the desired
future land uses. The land classifications for the 1998 Wilmington -New Hanover County Comprehensive
Plan Update are as follows:
Developed
The purpose of the Developed class is to provide for continued intensive development and
redevelopment of existing urban areas. These areas are already developed at a density approaching 1,500
dwelling units per square mile. Urban services are already in place or scheduled within the immediate
future. Most of the land within the City of Wilmington is designated as Developed, except for some Urban
Transition and Conservation areas. Density may exceed 2.5 units per acre within the Developed class,
depending upon local zoning regulations.
Urban Transition
The purpose of the Urban Transition class is to provide for future intensive urban development on
lands that have been or will be provided with necessary urban services. The location of these areas is based
upon land use planning policies requiring optimum efficiency in land utilization and public service delivery.
Residential development can exceed 2.5 units per acre within the Urban Transition area provided the
development is adequately designed to be compatible with existing and proposed surrounding land uses and
it is served by:
Sewer - the development shall be served by City or County sewer systems or private package
treatment systems that meet the most stringent State requirements.
2. Municipal or County water system - the development shall be served by City or County water
systems or a private water system constructed in accordance with City of Wilmington standards.
3. Direct access to a minor arterial or larger access road, as classified under the New Hanover
CoupThoroughfare Classification System - the development may be required to fully provide
or to share in the cost of the provision of roadway improvements needed to adequately serve the
proposed development and the community in general.
Limited Transition
The purpose of the Limited Transition class is to provide for development in areas that will have
some services, but at lower densities than those associated with Urban Transition.
83

Residential density should be no more than 2.5 units/acre, with lower density being more desirable.
The use of clustering and Planned Unit Developments (PUD) is encouraged.
These areas were previously designated as Transition and were intended to provide for more
intensive future urban development. However the provision of public services has been scaled back and less
intensive urban development is planned.
Community
The purpose of the Community class is to provide for a "crossroads" type of development to help
meet housing, shopping, employment and public service needs within the more rural areas of the County.
Services may be provided to these areas, but not to stimulate more intensive development. Density shall
not exceed 2.5 units/acre.
These rural areas of the planning jurisdiction are typically characterized by a small grouping of
mixed land uses, such as community shopping, church, school and residences, which provide low intensity
-,.:retail service and housing opportunities. The only area currently designated as "Community" is Castle
Hayne.
Rural
The purpose of the Rural class is to provide for areas of low intensity land uses, such as agriculture,
forest management, mineral extraction and other traditional agrarian uses. This classification discourages
the premature conversion of these lands into urban -type uses and the subsequent loss of resource production.
Other land uses of a noxious or hazardous nature with the potential for negative impacts on adjacent
` ' : uses may be allowed, provided that they can be sited in a manner which will minimize their negative effect
on surrounding land uses and natural resources.
Only low density residential development not exceeding 2.5 units per acre is permitted, since the
extension of urban services into the Rural class would be an inefficient use of resources. Compatible
commercial and industrial uses may also be allowed, provided that natural resources are not adversely
impacted.
Conservation
The purpose of the Conservation class is to provide for effective long-term management and
protection of significant, limited or irreplaceable natural resources while also protecting the rights of the
property owner. Management of these areas may be required for a number of reasons, including natural,
cultural, recreational, productive or scenic values.
Lands placed in the Conservation class present challenges from a land use standpoint, as they are
often the most desirable from a development perspective and they may be, at the same time, the most
undesirable to develop from an environmental perspective.
Lands placed in the Conservation class are generally the least desirable for development because:
84

1. They are too fragile to withstand development without losing their natural value; and/or
2. They have severe or hazardous limitations to development; and/or
3. Though they are not highly fragile or hazardous, the natural resources they represent are too
valuable to endanger by development.
In order to promote the highest and best use while preventing a negative impact on water quality,
site specific flexibility and creativity is desirable. The application of regulations regarding issues such as
density, buffers and impervious surfaces should enhance this flexibility. The use of incentives such as
density credits and performance criteria is encouraged.
Generally, estuarine areas of environmental concern (AEC's) as defined by the State of North
Carolina and adjacent lands within the 100-year floodplain have been classified as Conservation.
Conservation areas should be preserved in their natural state. Woodland, grassland and recreation
areas not requiring filling are the most appropriate uses. Exceptions to this standard are limited to water -
dependent uses (i.e., uses that cannot function elsewhere), shared industrial access corridors, and those
exceptional development proposals which are sensitively designed so as to effectively preserve the natural
functions of the site. The following guidelines clarify these Conservation area objectives and development
of property should be limited to the following uses:
1. Water dependent uses - may include: utility easements, docks, wharves, boat ramps,
dredging, bridge and bridge approaches, revetments, bulkheads, culverts, groins, navigational
aide, moorings, pilings, navigational channels, simple access channels and drainage ditches.
In some instances, a water -dependent use may involve coverage of sizeable land areas with
limited opportunities to integrate the use with the site's natural features. This would require
reclassification of the site. By contrast, water dependent uses which can be designed to
preserve a site's natural features may not require reclassification. This would be the preferred
type of development.
2. Shared industrial access corridors - as discussed in the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers' The Wilmington Harbor: Plan for Improvement, would provide necessary
access to the channel of the Northeast Cape Fear River for industries located on high
ground while minimizing the adverse environmental impacts of such access.
3. Exceptional developments preserving natural features are projects which are
sensitively designed to be in harmony with the site's natural features and natural functions,
and provide a balance with the highest and best use of the property. Such projects minimize
erosion, runoff and siltation; minimize impervious surfaces impacts and protect estuarine
resources; do not interfere with access to or use of navigable waters; do not require
extraordinary public expenditures for maintenance; ensure that ground absorption sewage
systems, if used, meet applicable standards; and should be aware of and not damage historic,
architectural or archeological resources.
85

In no case, with the exception of the Wilmington National Register Historic District, shall residential
density in the Conservation class be permitted to exceed 2.5 units per acre, regardless of the existence of
public urban services. Residential densities may be required to be as low as 1.0 unit/acre or less, depending
on the environmental constraints within a particular area. While certain Conservation areas may be served
by public sewer in order to eliminate septic system pollution, this should not be misconstrued as an incentive
to facilitate increased development density.
Resource Protection
The purpose of the Resource Protection class is to provide for the preservation and protection of
important natural, historic, scenic, wildlife and recreational resources. The Resource Protection class has
been, developed in recognition of the fact that New Hanover County, one of the most urbanized counties in
the State still contains numerous areas of environmental or cultural sensitivity which merit protection from
urban land uses.
The Resource Protection class includes land adjacent to the estuarine waters which are classified SA
by the North Carolina Division of Environmental Management. The class also includes land in the Castle
Hayne area where the protection of farmland, a rural lifestyle, and the aquifer system are highly important
issues. Generally residential densities greater than 2.5 units per acre shall not be permitted in the Resource
Protection class and may be required to be as low as 1.0 unitlacre or less, depending on the development
constraints within a particular area. Within the urban service boundary, residential density greater than 2.5
units per acre may be considered for exceptionally designed projects that meet performance based standards
of the Unified Development Ordinance. These standards shall address the Comprehensive Plan goals and
policies for urban design, water quality, greenways, transportation, levels of service and other development
related impacts within the tidal creek watersheds. No increase in density may be considered until such time
as the performance based standards of the Unified Development Ordinance are completed and adopted by
the City and County. Compatible commercial and industrial development may be located within the
Resource Protection class as long as important resources are not adversely impacted. It is important to note
that the County sewer service being provided to portions of this area is intended for the purpose of
eliminating septic pollution and not for encouraging substantial increases in the density of development.
LAND CLASSIFICATION MAP
Included on the next page is the Land Classification Map. This map indicates the location of
each of the land classes previously described in this section. It is intended for general location purposes
only and should not be utilized for site -specific interpretive purposes due to its scale. For more detailed
information regarding the land classification for a specific site, contact the New Hanover County
Planning Department or the City of Wilmington Planning and Development Department.
86

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Appendix
A. Definitions
B. List of Available Reports
' 88

A. Definitions
• Carrying Capacity- the number of individuals who can be supported without degrading the
physical, ecological, cultural and social environments (eg. without reducing the ability of
the environment to sustain the desired quality of life over the long term).
• Cumulative Impacts- two or more individual effects which when considered together are
considerable or which compound or increase other environmental effects.
• Secondary Impacts- later and unintended effects of any direct man-made action or
indirect repercussions of man-made actions.
• Barrier Islands - any land formation composed of unconsolidated materials lying on the
ocean side of the mainland and which have the following characteristics: a) The land is an
island or part of island with a density equal to or less than one residential unit per five acres;
b) the island area has been assigned the most severe rank with regard to hurricane forces;
c) the island area is not connected to the mainland by a permanent network of roads and
bridges that would allow safe and timely evacuation by land rather than boat; d) the island
area does not qualify for the National Flood Insurance Program as administered by the
Federal Emergency Management Agency; e) the island area is classified as Conservation
in the Land Use Plan; also includes estuarine islands, riverine islands, and spoil disposal
islands (note: further clarification of this definition will be provided with amendments to
zoning and subdivision definitions).
Hydric Soils - Soils that are saturated or seasonally saturated with water at or near the
surface (within 12-18 inches depending on soil type). Generalized characteristics include
high organic matter content of the surface, low shrink swell potential, and frequent sustained
flooding. All Class IV and some Class III Soils as defined in the 1981 technical report,
Classification of Soils in New Hanover Countyfor Septic Tank Suitability.
Development -any man-made change to improved or unimproved real estate, including but
not limited to buildings or other structures, mining, dredging, filling, grading, paving,
excavation, or drilling operations; excluding bona fide farming activities.
• Major Development - the term major development project shall include but is not
limited to shopping centers, subdivision and other housing developments, and
industrial and commercial projects, but shall not include any project of less than 2
contiguous acres in extent (G.S. 113A-9. Definitions -NC Environmental Policy
Act).
Watershed - the area of land where water that falls or is contained therein runs off or drains
into the same river, stream, lake, estuary, or aquifer.
Riparian Access - the legal right of waterfront property owners to construct docks or piers
that are contained within the boundaries of their riparian area limit (90 degree angle from
the edge of the channel back to the property line or shore).
89

• Marina - includes commercial marinas, rental slips, community boating facilities, and
residential piers renting more than two slips.
• Commercial Marina- any dock or basin and associated structures commercially
providing permanent or temporary harboring or storing of two or more boats,
pleasure or commercial, and providing marine services, including but not limited
to retail sales for fuel, repair, convenient food stuffs, boats, engines, and accessory
equipment.
• Community Boating Facility- a private non-profit boating facility including a
dock, pier, and/or launching ramp on property which has water frontage, the use of
which is intended to serve 5 or more residential lots or units. The right to use such
facility must be conferred by an easement appurtenant to the residential lot it is
intended to serve. No commercial activities of any kind shall be allowed within the
confines of the facility.
• Mooring - any means to attach a ship, boat, vessel or other water craft to a
stationary underwater device, buoy, buoyed anchor, or freestanding piling.
• Water Dependant Uses- those activities or structures for which the use requires access or
proximity to or siting adjacent to or within surface waters to fulfill its intended purpose,
such as boat docks, ramps, shoreline stabilization measures, navigational aids and/or
channels. Examples of structures that are not water dependant include but are not limited
to commercial boat storage facilities, restaurants, residences, parking lots, trailers, hotels,
motels, roadways, tennis courts, or swimming pools.
• Passive Recreation- those activities which avoid or minimize the use of impervious or built
upon surfaces, such as raised wooden walkways, vegetated greenways, non -paved pathways,
and other similar uses. Passive recreation activities shall conform to standards for setbacks,
buffers, impervious surfaces, etc.
• Vegetated Buffer- an area that is or will be vegetated with native coastal species and which
acts as a natural transition zone between coastal waters and adjacent upland land uses.
Vegetated buffers should maintain a diversity of native plant species and types (eg. grasses,
shrubs, and trees).
90

B. List of Available Reports
The following is a list of available reports used with the Comprehensive Plan. Key words of
reports are shown in bold.
1. New Hanover County Voter Survey, Eastcoast Research Wilmington, N.C., October 1997.
2. Population of New Hanover County and Wilmington, North Carolina, January 1999.
3. Economy of New Hanover County and Wilmington, North Carolina, January 1999.
4. Housing of New Hanover County and Wilmington, North Carolina, January 1999.
5. Wilmington Urban Area Draft Transportation Plan, 1999-2025.
6. Community Infrastructure.
Description of the two reports.
Final Level of Service, Cost & Revenue Factor Assumptions, April 1998
Fiscal Impact of Providing Services in 1998 and 2010, June 1998.
7. Environmental Resources and Constraints, of New Hanover County and Wilmington, North
Carolina, October 1997.
8. Existing Land Use in New Hanover County, Wilmington, Wrightsville Beach, Kure Beach,
and Carolina Beach, October 1997.
9. Future Land Use of New Hanover County and Wilmington, North Carolina, January 1999.
10. Hurricane Mitigation & Reconstruction, of New Hanover County and Wilmington, North
Carolina, October 1997.
11. Summary of Plans, policies and Regulations for of New Hanover County and Wilmington,
North Carolina, January 1999.
12. Implementation Evaluation, of the 1993 CAMA Land Use plan update for New Hanover
County and Wilmington, North Carolina, January 1999.
13. Citizen Participation Plan of New Hanover County and Wilmington, North Carolina,
January 1999.
91

0oafi 6YAwRa ,2522
90UmMy1,M, dYbWkWaa &^w28402
&k 970452-0001
Aam-W0452-0060
PRoe�+6�.�foaG
10/4/2005
Jon Giles
Division of Coastal Management
127 Cardinal Drive Extension
Wilmington, N.C. 28405-3845
Re: CAMA Major Permit, 19 Osprey Drive, Joel Tomaselli
Jon,
.�utla-74
�t�.k�8,z8uos
OCT 0 6 2005
Morehead City DCM
Enclosed are the appropriate revised application materials for the CAMA Major Permit for Mr. Joel Tomaselli.
Discussion with DMF indicates that the division would likely drop the objection to the proposed pier if the pier
was extended to increase water depths under the proposed boat slips to those comparable to the existing 10 slip
pier for the neighborhood. Therefore, the proposed pier has been extended to a total length of 200' to allow for,
at a minimum, -2' MLW depths where the boats will be moored. Please contact me if you have any questions.
or need additional information.
Sincerely,
Greg Finch
Environmental Scientist
Encl: Revised application materials
cc: Joel Tomaselli
Jonathan Howell
Fritz Rhode
Steven Everhart
Joanne Steenhuis
Ian McMillan

Form DCM-MP-4
STRUCTURES
(Construction within Public TYnst Areas)
Attach this form to Joint Application for CAMA Major
Permit, Form DCM MP-1. Be sure to complete all
other sections of the Joint Application which relate to
this proposed project.
a. Dock(s) and/or Pier(s)
(1) ,_ Commercial —Community ..L Private
(2) Number 1
(3) Length goo
(4) Width 06'
(5) F'mger Piers Yes X_ No
(i) Number NA
(ii) Length NA
(iii) Width NA
(6) Platform(s) x Yes No
(J) Number 1
(ii) Length 36'
(iii) Width V
(7) Number of slips proposed 2
(8) Proximity of structure to adjacent riparian
property lines 7T
(9) Width of water body &Pmx. 959
(10) Water depth at waterward end of pier at
MLW or NWL Min. Z MLW
b. Boathouse (including covered lifts)
(1) NA Commercial NA Private
(2) Length NA
(3) Width NA
c. Groin (e.g. wood, sheetpile, etc.)
(1) • Number NA
(2) Length(s) NA
d. Breakwater (e.g. wood, sheetpile,'etc.)
(1) Length NA
(2) Average distance from MEW, NWL or
wetlands NA
(3) Maximum distance beyond MEW, NWL or
wetlands NA
ti s
OCT 0 6 2005
Morehead City DCM
e. Mooring buoys
(1) NA Commercial �► Community NA Private
(2) Number. NA
(3) Description of buoy
(Color, inscription, size, anchor, etc.)
NA
(4) Width of water body NA
(5) Distance buoy(s) to be placed beyond
shoreline NA
f. Mooring structure (boatlift, mooring pilings, etc.)
(1) __._ Commercial ,,,Community x Private
(2) Number 2 Mooring Pilings
(3) Length NA
(4) Width NA
g. Other (Give ampkw deseripdon)
NA
Appik t or Project Name
s�natam 0 v�-
�a1k1 aK
Date
Revised 0319S

A
RnTT(H1 J
OCT 0 6 Zoos
Morehead City ®C
N
O
O
MHW
MLW
Original Drawing and Design by
Parker and Associates, Inc.
Project, Yao d
Crystal Shores, Section II, Lot
11 �nt►treeteneirtEa� ,t°erert�e
19 Osprey Drive
Joel Tonaselli
It e,
Sam
2522
� w�e%lna
281102
Pier Cross Section��„./1eKh
I_gPeeed -0�
9 9�0—//52-000�
Scale-
Datev Revision
1'=40'
02-05-154
Dates 9/22/O5 6/23/2005 10/4/05
Drawn Sheet
GSF Numbem
2 of 3

AIWW
---------------------- -------------
Edge of Federally MaintainedIChannel
-3--------------- Q
+/- 3000'
PROPOSED 6 1.81, 6 2.06
PIER
MORRING 36,13'
PILING
(TYP• 2) 8,00,
wil
15,00'
200.00' I�
EDGE OF
MARSH 31----=1------ ------_-_�_ J
CDI�`= =--0_ -- ---- --_h
APPROX. MEAN HIGH cuI
WATER LINE
404 WETLANDS 2- _ _ _ - - _ I CIDLINE _
------------I
NORMA G. HUNTER
----------- _ & J. BOCKETT
D.B. 1419, PG 417
30' CAMA LINE ------
i
AEC LINE C11�
I \ I
TBF Properties, LLC
D.B. 2169, PG 219
R�W _---- 50,00' _ - ---
OSPREY DP
EOP - �50 RAW
FOP
R 1W J CD' o
Note: Topographic Lines Are C
Interpotations and Not Exact.
N
o
0
0
mainat Draw,gg sign by
ker and'FasseEao� s, Inc.